Geography Important Questions and Answers for Competitive Exams 2025 (UPSC, SSC, Bank, Railways)

Important & Expected Questions from Geography (History of Geography)

Who is regarded as the father of Geography? - Eratosthenes (276–194 BC) – He used the word “Geography” for the first time and also the first who tried to calculate the length of equator and circumference of the earth.
Aristotle was the first thinker who wrote about the shape of earth as being spherical on the basis of sound reasoning
Strabo considered the earth to be oblong
Ptolemy discovered the Terra incognito or the unknown land
Historia naturalia is the famous book of Pliny
Thales was the first scholar who tried to measure the earth
Anximander was the first to draw map also he's regarded as the first cartographer
Thales and anximander are considered as the father of mathematical geography
Herodotus was first scholar who tried to draw meridian on the map

Hecataeus is also known as father of geography and his famous book GES periods known for description of earth.

Hipparchus is the first person who divided the circle into 360 Degree

Which Greek scholar is regarded as the Father of Ancient Geography?- Eratosthenes
Who wrote Geographica and also considered father of Geodesy - Eratosthenes
Who calculated the circumference of Earth most accurately in the ancient world -Eratosthenes.
Which ancient scholar considered Earth as the centre of the universe (Geocentric theory)?- Aristotle.
Which Indian astronomer wrote Aryabhatiya and calculated Earth’s circumference? - Aryabhata (476–520 AD).
Who wrote Panchasiddhantika and Brihatsamhita? - Varahamihira (505–587 AD).
Who wrote Kitab-ul-Hind giving detailed account of India’s geography and society? - Al-Biruni (973–1048 AD).
Who wrote Rihla describing his travels including India?- Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 AD).
Who wrote Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik and is known as father of Arabic Geography? - Ibn Khordadbeh
Which geographer is known for the book Indica describing India? - Megasthenes.
Which ancient Indian text describes monsoon and seasonal cycles (5 season)? - Rig Veda.

Indian & World Geography Contributions

Who is regarded as the Father of Modern Geography and father of vegetation geography and father of climatology?- Alexander von Humboldt
Who coined the term climatology and permafrost - Humboldt
Who wrote famous book cosmos - Humboldt
Who wrote the book Geographia Generalis? - Varenius.
Who is regarded as the Real founder & Father of Human Geography? - Paul Vidal de la Blache
Who introduced the concept of ‘Determinism’ in geography? - Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904 AD).
Who is known as the Father of Political Geography? - Friedrich Ratzel.
Who is known as the Father of Anthropogeography? - Friedrich Ratzel.
Who wrote the book Anthropogeography? - Friedrich Ratzel.
Who coined the term ‘Possibilism’? - Lucien Febvre.
Who proposed the concept of Neo-Determinism / Stop & Go Determinism? - Griffith Taylor.
Mackinder gave the famous political geography 'the heartland theory' in his famous book democratic ideals and reality.
Carl Ortwin Sauer - Considered as father of cultural geography
Herberston - First person who studied the natural geography divided the world into 15 natura regions.

Aryabhatta told that the earth is a spherical body and it calculated the circumference as 24835 mile which is very close to the present calculation of 24,901 miles or aryabhattiyam his famous book, the Hindi term for geography bhugol was used for the first time in his book SuryaSiddhanta
Varah Mihir famous geographer of India after aryabhatt give information about the solar and lunar eclipse discuss about five concept of Vashisht, paitamah polas saur and romac in his astrological treatise panchasiddhantika
Brahmagupta wrote Braham Siddhanta and Khand Kavya
Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani and Karanakutuhal according to him earth is spherical and attract everything by it force of gravitation. Leelavati and bijaganit are his famous book on mathematics.
India has been described jambo deep in puranas the eastern coast of India has been called Mahendra malai in the ancient India
The early Indian geography held that the prime meridian passes through Ujjain
British scientist Higgs propagate the concept of God particle in 1964 which are based on the Boson theory of Satyendra nath Bose of India
Al- khwarizimi wrote book name Sindh Hind
Caliph Al-Mamun got ptolemy treatise translated into Arabic with the title Almagest
Kitab Al ashkal what the first climatic Atlas prepared by Al-Balakhi
Arab were the first to present a seasonal account of monsoon
Marco Polo who travel for the first time from Mediterranean to the Pacific Ocean
Educational institute Baitul Hikma established under the patronage of Caliph Harun-al-rashid of Baghdad.

Discoveries & Explorations

Who was the first person to prove the earth is spherical in shape? - Aristotle
Who discovered Australia and New Zealand? - Captain James Cook (1770 AD).
Who discovered the Cape of Good Hope (1487 AD)? - Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal).
Who discovered the sea route to India (1498 AD)? - Vasco da Gama.
Who discovered America (1492 AD)? - Christopher Columbus.
Who discovered Greenland (981 AD)?- Eric the Red (Viking).
Who discovered the South Pole (1911 AD)? - Roald Amundsen (Norway).
Who discovered the North Pole (1909 AD)? - Robert Peary.

Scientific Geography & Astronomy

Who is known as the Father of Modern Astronomy? - Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543 AD).
Who proposed the Heliocentric Theory? - Copernicus.
Who gave the Laws of Planetary Motion? - Johannes Kepler.
Who invented the telescope? - Galileo Galilei (1609 AD).
Who discovered the Law of Gravitation? - Isaac Newton (1642–1727 AD).
Who is known as the Father of Cosmology? -Abbe Georges Lemaitre.
Who proposed the Big Bang Theory?- Georges Lemaitre.
The Big Bang is believed to have occurred about how many years ago? -13.9 billion years ago.
What is the name of the particle discovered in 2012, also called ‘God Particle’? -Higgs Boson.
In which laboratory was the Higgs Boson experiment conducted? - CERN Laboratory (Switzerland–France border).

Geocentric Model

What is the Geocentric Model? - The Geocentric Model states that the Earth is the center of the universe and all other heavenly bodies revolve around it. Note: This model was accepted until the 16th century CE.

Heliocentric Model

What is the Heliocentric Model and who proposed it? - The Heliocentric Model states that the Sun is at the center and the planets revolve around it. It was proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus and scientifically supported by Galileo Galilei in 1633 CE.

The Sun

Q. What is the importance of the Sun in the Solar System?

The Sun is the center of the Solar System.
It is the ultimate source of energy for life on Earth.
It consists mainly of Hydrogen (71%) and Helium (26.5%).
Nuclear fusion of Hydrogen into Helium releases tremendous energy, including light and heat.
The Sun’s temperature at the surface is approximately 5778 K (or 5500 °C).

Planets

How do planets move around the Sun? - All planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits in the same direction, governed by gravitational forces.

Origin of the Solar System

How was the Solar System formed? - The Solar System formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a giant nebular cloud of gas and dust that came together due to gravity.

Inner and Outer Planets

What is the division of planets in the Solar System? - Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (rocky, terrestrial), Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (gas giants)

Star

What is a star? - A star is a massive ball of gases (mainly Hydrogen & Helium) which emits light and heat by nuclear fusion reactions.

Solar Energy

What is the source of the Sun’s energy? - The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion of Hydrogen into Helium in its core. Speed of Light (Bonus - From Highlighted Portion)
What is the speed of light? - The speed of light is approximately 3 × 10⁸ m/s (300,000 km/s).

Geocentric vs Heliocentric Model

Who proposed the Geocentric Model? - Ancient Greek philosophers (e.g., Ptolemy).
What does the Geocentric Model state? - Earth is at the center and all celestial bodies revolve around it.
When was the Geocentric Model widely accepted? - Until the 16th century CE.
Who proposed the Heliocentric Model? - Nicolaus Copernicus.
Who gave scientific support to the Heliocentric Model? - Galileo Galilei in 1633 CE.
What does the Heliocentric Model state? - Sun is at the center and planets revolve around it.

The Sun

What is the central star of the Solar System? : The Sun.
What is the Sun made up of mainly? : Hydrogen (71%) and Helium (26.5%).
What is the temperature of the Sun’s surface? - Around 5778 K (≈ 5500 °C).
What is the source of the Sun’s energy? - Nuclear fusion of Hydrogen into Helium.
What is the Sun’s main function in the Solar System? - It provides light and heat to all planets and governs their motion.

The Solar System

How old is the Solar System? - Around 4.6 billion years.
From what did the Solar System form? - A nebular cloud of gas and dust.
How many planets are there in the Solar System? - Eight planets.
What are the inner planets? - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
What are the outer planets? - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
What kind of orbits do planets follow? - Elliptical orbits.
What are the other members of the Solar System besides the Sun and planets? - Satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, comets.
What governs the motion of planets around the Sun? - Gravitational force.
Stars & Other Celestial Bodies
What is a star? - massive ball of gas emitting light and heat by nuclear fusion.
What is the speed of light? - 3 × 10⁸ m/s.
What are asteroids? - Small rocky bodies orbiting the Sun, mainly between Mars and Jupiter.
What are meteoroids? - Small pieces of rock moving through space.
What are comets? - Icy bodies that develop tails when they approach the Sun.

Quick Fact Section

The Sun is composed mainly of which two elements? : Hydrogen and Helium.
Which planet is closest to the Sun? : Mercury.
Which planet is farthest from the Sun? - Neptune.
What is the central source of energy for the Earth? -The Sun.
What keeps planets in their orbits around the Sun? - Gravitational force of the Sun.
The elliptical orbit of planets was explained by whom? - Johannes Kepler.

The Sun & Related Facts

What is the shining surface of the Sun called?: Photosphere — It radiates energy and acts as a source of light.
What is the outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere made of hot gases called? - Corona — visible during a total solar eclipse or with a coronagraph.
What is the temperature at the centre of the Sun? - Around 1.571 × 10⁷ K (≈ 15 million °C).
What is the average distance between the Sun and Earth? - Around 150 million km.
How long does sunlight take to reach Earth? - Around 8 minutes 20 seconds.
What is the speed of light? - 3 × 10⁸ m/s.
What is the Sun Spot Cycle? - It is an 11-year periodic cycle of sunspot activity on the Sun’s surface.

Classification of Planets

How are planets classified?: Into Inner Planets and Outer Planets.
Name the Inner Planets.: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.They are closer to the Sun, dense & rocky, have thin atmospheres, and shorter periods of revolution.
Name the Outer Planets.: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.They are farther from the Sun, made mostly of gases (Hydrogen & Helium), have large sizes, many satellites, and ring systems.
What are Jovian Planets? : Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune — gas giants.
What are Terrestrial Planets?: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars — rocky planets with Earth-like structure.

Planets & Their Sequence

What is the sequence of planets according to their distance from the Sun? - Mercury → Venus → Earth → Mars → Jupiter → Saturn → Uranus → Neptune
What is the sequence of planets in descending order of size? - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury
Which planet is the smallest in the Solar System? - Mercury
Which planet is the biggest in the Solar System? - Jupiter

Mercury

Which is the closest planet to the Sun? - Mercury
Does Mercury have an atmosphere? - No — it has almost no atmosphere.
Does Mercury have water on its surface? - No.
What special feature does Mercury have?: It has a strong magnetic field.
Does Mercury have an ozone layer?: No — hence it receives intense solar radiation.

Venus

Which planet is second from the Sun?: Venus
Which planet is visible before sunrise? - Mercury
Which is the brightest planet in the night sky?: Venus
Venus is known as the ‘Evening Star’ and ‘Morning Star’ - True
What is Venus also called due to its thick cloud cover? - Veiled Planet
Which planet is known as Earth’s twin? - Venus (similar in size and mass)
Which is the hottest planet in the Solar System? - Venus (due to its thick CO₂ atmosphere causing greenhouse effect — hotter than Mercury)
Is there sufficient oxygen on Venus? - No.
In which direction does Venus rotate? - From West to East (retrograde rotation)

Earth

Earth is the largest of which group of planets? - Inner Planets.
What is the axial tilt of the Earth? - 23.5°
How long does Earth take to rotate once on its axis?: 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds
What is the speed of Earth’s rotation? - 1,610 km/h at the equator.

Miscellaneous

What are Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis? - Natural light displays in the sky caused by solar particles — seen near the poles.
Where is Aurora Borealis seen? - Near the North Pole.
Where is Aurora Australis seen? - Near the South Pole.

The Earth – Key Facts

How long does Earth take to revolve around the Sun? 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes.
What is the mean orbital velocity of the Earth? - 29.8 km/sec.
Why is Earth called the “Watery Planet” or “Blue Planet”? - Due to the presence of a huge amount of water on its surface.
Why is Earth unique in the Solar System? - It is the only planet known to support life due to oxygen, water, and suitable conditions.

The Moon – Key Data

What is the only satellite of the Earth? - The Moon
What is the diameter of the Moon? - 3,475 km
What is the circumference of the Moon? - 10,864 km
What is the maximum distance (apogee) of the Moon from Earth? - 4,06,000 km
What is the minimum distance (perigee) of the Moon from Earth? - 3,64,000 km
What is the average distance of the Moon from Earth? - 3,84,400 km
How long does the Moon take to complete one revolution around Earth? - 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 11.6 seconds (Sidereal month)
What is the time taken between two full moons (Synodic period)? - 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.8 seconds
What percentage of the Moon’s surface is visible from Earth? - 59%
How long does light from the Moon take to reach Earth? - 1.3 seconds
What is the size of the Moon compared to the Earth? : About 1/4 (one-fourth) the size of Earth.
What is the gravitational pull of the Moon compared to Earth?: 1/6 (one-sixth) of Earth’s gravity.
What is the average daytime temperature on the Moon?: Around +100°C
What is the average temperature on the Moon at night? : Around −180°C
Does the Moon have an atmosphere or sound? - No — there is no atmosphere, twilight, or sound.
What is the highest point on the Moon? - The Selenean Summit (35,387 ft) — located on the South Pole of the Moon.
What is the bright part of the Moon? - Regolith
What are the dark patches on the Moon? - Low-lying plains
What is the “Sea of Tranquility”? : A plain on the Moon’s surface.
What is the name of the study of the Moon?: Selenology
What is the Moon sometimes called due to its ancient rocks? :Fossil planet
What are the major elements on the Moon? : Silicon, iron, magnesium, etc.

Special Moon Phenomena

What is a Super Moon? :When a full moon occurs at or near perigee (closest to Earth) making it appear larger and brighter.
What is a Blue Moon? - When two full moons occur in the same calendar month, the second is called a Blue Moon.
What is a Blood Moon? - A total lunar eclipse when the Moon appears reddish as it passes through Earth’s shadow.
What is a Lunar Tetrad? - A sequence of four total lunar eclipses in a row with no partial eclipses in between.

Indian Space Missions – Chandrayaan

Chandrayaan-1

When was Chandrayaan-1 launched? - 22nd October 2008
From where was Chandrayaan-1 launched? - Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh)
Which launch vehicle carried Chandrayaan-1? - PSLV-C11
What was Chandrayaan-1’s main objective? - To map the Moon’s surface using high-resolution remote sensing.
What important discovery did Chandrayaan-1 help confirm? - Presence of water molecules on the Moon’s surface.

Chandrayaan-2

When was Chandrayaan-2 launched?: 22 July 2019
When did Chandrayaan-2 enter lunar orbit?: 20 August 2019
What was the name of Chandrayaan-2 lander? -Vikram
What was the name of Chandrayaan-2 rover? - Pragyan
What was the main aim of Chandrayaan-2 mission? - To explore the South Pole of the Moon with orbiter, lander, and rover.

Important Questions & Answers from the Notes (Planets)

Mars

Why is Mars called the "Red Planet"? : Because its soil contains iron-rich dust giving it a reddish appearance.
Mars is how much the size of Earth? - Half the size of Earth.

What are the main features of Mars?

Terrestrial planet

Small and rocky

Thin atmosphere (mostly CO₂, nitrogen, argon)

Has polar ice caps, volcanoes, canyons, and weather.

What is the duration of one day on Mars?: About 24.6 hours.
What is the duration of one year on Mars?: About 687 Earth days (almost twice as long as one year on Earth).
Name the moons of Mars: Phobos and Deimos.
Which Indian mission studied Mars?: Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), launched by ISRO on 5 Nov 2013; entered orbit on 24 Sept 2014.

Jupiter

Which is the largest planet in the Solar System?: Jupiter.
Jupiter is also known as?: The "Winter Planet" (average temp: –148°C).
Largest satellite of Jupiter?: Ganymede (largest in the Solar System, bigger than Mercury).

Saturn

Which is the second largest planet in the Solar System?: Saturn.
Brightest and largest satellite of Saturn? - Titan.

Uranus

Who discovered Uranus and when?: William Herschel in 1781.
Which was the first planet to be discovered by telescope?: Uranus.
Size of Uranus compared to Earth?: About 4 times the size of Earth.
Why does Uranus appear greenish?: Because of methane gas present in its atmosphere.
Uranus rotates from east to west, like which planet?: Venus (opposite to most other planets).
Uranus is the ___ largest planet of Solar System: 3rd largest.

Neptune

Which is the 8th (farthest) planet from the Sun?: Neptune.
Temperature on Neptune remains?: Very low (extremely cold).
Neptune is similar to which planet?: Uranus (considered twin planets).
Neptune is surrounded by?: Methane rings of sub-zero temperature.

Pluto

Why is Pluto no longer considered a planet?: In 2006, the IAU redefined the criteria of a planet; Pluto was reclassified as a "dwarf planet".
Pluto was discovered by?: Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
What asteroid number was given to Pluto after reclassification?:134340.
Name Pluto’s largest moon: Charon. (Other moons: Nix, Hydra).
When did Pluto lose its planetary status?: 24th August 2006.

Planets According to Order

1. By decreasing size: Jupiter > Saturn > Uranus > Neptune > Earth > Venus > Mars > Mercury

2. By decreasing mass: Jupiter > Saturn > Neptune > Uranus > Earth > Venus > Mars > Mercury

3. By decreasing density: Earth > Mercury > Venus > Mars > Neptune > Jupiter > Uranus > Saturn

4. By decreasing revolution period: Neptune > Uranus > Saturn > Jupiter > Mars > Earth > Venus > Mercury

5. By decreasing revolution velocity: Mercury > Venus > Earth > Mars > Jupiter > Saturn > Uranus > Neptune

One-Liner Questions & Answers (Planets)

Mars

Mars is also called? : Red Planet
Mars size compared to Earth?: Half the size
Atmosphere of Mars made of? - CO₂, nitrogen, argon
Day length on Mars? - 24.6 hours
Year length on Mars?: 687 Earth days
Moons of Mars?: Phobos & Deimos
Indian Mars mission?: MOM (Mangalyaan), 2013

Jupiter

Largest planet? : Jupiter
Also called?: Winter Planet
Average temp of Jupiter?: –148°C
Largest moon of Jupiter?: Ganymede (largest in Solar System)

Saturn

Second largest planet?: Saturn
Brightest planet in sky?: Saturn
Largest moon of Saturn?: Titan
Saturn is famous for?: Its rings

Uranus

Discovered by?: William Herschel (1781)
Planet number from Sun?: 7th
First planet discovered by telescope?: Uranus
Size compared to Earth?: 4 times larger
Color of Uranus?: Greenish (due to methane gas)
Uranus is the ____ largest planet.: 3rd largest
Special rotation of Uranus?: East to West (retrograde, like Venus)

Neptune

8th planet from the Sun?: Neptune
Temperature of Neptune?: Very low (coldest)
Neptune is twin of?: Uranus
Surrounded by?: Methane rings

Pluto

Discovered by?: Clyde Tombaugh (1930)
Pluto lost planet status in?: 2006 (IAU decision)
Pluto is now called?: Dwarf Planet / Minor Planet 134340
Largest moon of Pluto?: Charon
Other moons of Pluto?: Nix, Hydra

Planets Order

Largest planet?: Jupiter
Smallest planet?: Mercury
Brightest planet?:Venus
Hottest planet?: Venus (thick CO₂ atmosphere)
Coldest planet?: Neptune
Fastest revolution?:Mercury
Slowest revolution?: Neptune
Planet with maximum moons?: Saturn

Planets (Facts & Figures)

Which planet has the shortest year (orbital period)?: Mercury (88 days)
Which planet has the longest year?: Neptune (164 years ≈ 59800 days)
Fastest rotation (shortest day)?: Jupiter (9.9 hours)
Slowest rotation (longest day)?: Venus (243 Earth days ≈ retrograde)
Largest planet in diameter?: Jupiter (142,984 km)
Smallest planet in diameter?: Mercury (4,879 km)
Most massive planet?: Jupiter (318 times Earth)
Least massive planet?: Mercury (0.055 Earth mass)

Asteroids (Planetoids)

What are asteroids?: Minor planets, rocky objects revolving around the Sun.
Asteroids mostly found between?: Between Mars and Jupiter (Asteroid Belt).
Trojan asteroids are found?: In two clouds moving in the orbit of Jupiter (one ahead, one behind).
Number of known asteroids?: More than 5000 identified.

Meteors & Meteorites

What are meteors?: Small rock fragments burning in Earth’s atmosphere.
What are meteorites?: Large meteors that don’t burn completely and fall on Earth’s surface.
Source of most meteorites?: Asteroid belt.

Comets

Meaning of word "Comet"?: From Latin cometa = hairy star.
Orbits of comets?: Very elongated ellipses.
Composition of comets?: Frozen gases, dust, rocky & metallic materials.
Bright head of a comet called?: Coma.
Why comet tail always points away from Sun?: Due to solar wind & radiation pressure.

Stars

What are stars?: Huge heavenly bodies made up of hot burning gases, shining by own light.
Nearest star to Earth (after Sun)?: Proxima Centauri (4.24 light years away).
Total stars visible to naked eye from Earth?: About 6000, but only ~2000 visible at one time.
Approximate stars in the Universe?: 10²² stars.

Constellations

What are constellations?: Groups of stars forming patterns, used for identification.
No. of recognized constellations?: 88
Example of constellations?: Orion, Ursa Major, Cassiopeia, Draco, Leo.

Constellations & Zodiac Signs

Ursa Major (Great Bear) is called in India?: Saptarishi
Orion constellation is called?: Mriga / Vyadha (Hunter)
Draco constellation is called?: Shishumara
Aries constellation (Zodiac sign) in Indian name?: Mesh
Pisces constellation (Zodiac sign) in Indian name?: Meen
How many zodiac constellations?: 12

Milky Way Galaxy

What type of galaxy is the Milky Way?: Large spiral-shaped galaxy
Size of Milky Way?: ~100,000 light years across, ~10,000 light years thick at centre
Why called Milky Way?: Appears as glowing light of billions of stars
Time taken to complete one revolution?: ~250 million years
Who discovered that Milky Way is made of distant stars?: Galileo
Earth’s closest galactic neighbour?: Andromeda Galaxy
Andromeda appears as?: Fuzzy patch of light

Galaxies & Clusters

Galaxies are grouped into?: Clusters
Clusters are grouped into?: Super-clusters
Our Milky Way belongs to?: Local Group (part of Virgo Cluster)

Nebulae

What are nebulae?: Huge interstellar clouds of gas and dust
Who proposed the Nebular Hypothesis?: Pierre Simon Laplace
Types of nebulae?: Planetary, emission, reflection, dark nebula
How do nebulae shine?: Either by own light (ionized hydrogen) or by reflecting light of stars

Earth – Shape & Size

Who first proposed Earth is shaped like a globe?: Pythagoras (572–500 B.C.)
What is the shape of Earth?: Oblate spheroid (flattened at poles, bulging at equator)
Proof that Earth is spherical?: Circular shadow during lunar eclipse
At North Pole, position of Pole Star?: At 90° directly overhead

Composition of Earth’s Crust

Largest element in Earth’s crust? - Oxygen (46%)

Second largest element in crust? - Silicon (35%)

Other elements in crust?: Aluminium (8%), Iron (5%), Calcium (4%), Sodium (3%), Potassium (2%), Magnesium (2%)

Constellations

How many officially recognized constellations?: 88
Which constellation is called "The Hunter"?: Orion (Mriga/Vyadha)
Which constellation contains the Pole Star?: Ursa Minor (Little Bear / Laghu Matsya Leo)
Which constellation is called "Great Bear"?: Ursa Major (Saptarishi)
Which constellation resembles a Scorpion?: Scorpio (Vrischika)

Milky Way & Galaxies

Shape of Milky Way?: Spiral
Distance across Milky Way?: ~100,000 light years
Thickness at centre of Milky Way?: ~10,000 light years
Time taken by Solar System to complete one orbit of Milky Way?: ~250 million years
Closest Galaxy to Milky Way?: Andromeda (M31)
Which galaxy is visible to naked eye from Earth?: Andromeda
Group of galaxies including Milky Way is called?: Local Group
Local Group is part of which bigger cluster?: Virgo Cluster

Nebulae

What are Nebulae?: Interstellar clouds of gas and dust
Famous nebula in Orion constellation?: Orion Nebula
If nebula glows by itself → it is called?: Emission nebula
If nebula shines only by reflecting starlight → it is called?: Reflection nebula
If nebula is dark and blocks light → it is called?: Dark nebula
First scientist to propose Nebular Hypothesis?: Laplace

Earth – Shape & Proofs

Earth’s shape?: Oblate Spheroid
Equatorial diameter of Earth?: ~12,756 km
Polar diameter of Earth?: ~12,714 km
Flattening at poles and bulge at equator caused by?: Earth’s rotation
Who proved Earth is spherical by shadow on moon during eclipse?: Aristotle
Who first said Earth is a globe?: Pythagoras

Earth – Life Supporting Features

Why is Earth suitable for life? (1-line reasons)

Right distance from Sun

Moderate temperature

Water in liquid form

Oxygen-rich atmosphere

Protective ozone layer

Composition of Earth’s Crust

Most abundant element?: Oxygen (46%)
Second most abundant element?: Silicon (35%)
Third most abundant element?: Aluminium (8%)
Fourth most abundant element?: Iron (5%)
Light metals present in crust?: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium

Statistical Data of the Earth

What is the average distance of Earth from the Sun?: 14.95 × 10⁷ km (149.6 million km approx.)
What is the mass of Earth?: 5.972 × 10²⁴ kg
What is the mean diameter of the Earth?: 12,756 km
What is the equatorial circumference of Earth?: 40,076 km
What percentage of Earth’s surface is covered by land and water?: Land – 29.1% ; Water – 70.9%
What percentage of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans?: About 71%

What is the highest and lowest natural point on Earth?

Highest: Mount Everest (8,850 m)

Lowest: Dead Sea (396.8 m below sea level)

What is the greatest depth point in oceans?: Mariana Trench (11,034 m, Pacific Ocean, near Japan)

Continents of the World

How many continents are there in the world? - Seven – Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia, and Antarctica.

Asia

The word “Asia” is derived from which word and what does it mean? - Derived from “Asu” (Hebrew language), meaning ‘the rising sun’.
Which is the largest continent of the world?- Asia
What is the total area covered by Asia? - 44.6 million sq. km (about 30% of land surface)
What percentage of the world’s population lives in Asia? - About 60%
Which continent has the greatest diversity in physical features, climate, vegetation, wildlife, and people?- Asia
Which is the highest mountain peak and the lowest point in Asia? -Mount Everest (8,850 m) & Dead Sea (396.8 m below sea level)
Where is the world’s deepest lake located? - Lake Baikal, Russia (1,637 m deep)
Which desert is the hottest place on Earth? - Desert in Iran
Which place records the highest average rainfall in the world? - Mawsynram, near Cherrapunji, India (11,873 mm)
Asia lies mostly in which hemisphere? - Northern & Eastern Hemisphere
What are the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of Asia?- Latitude: 10°S to 80°N ; Longitude: almost entirely in Eastern Hemisphere
Which seas separate Asia from Europe? - Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Black Sea, Suez Canal
Which strait separates Asia from North America? - Bering Strait

Antarctica – White Continent

Which is the coldest place on Earth? - Antarctica (Vostok – recorded −89.2°C)
Which is the driest, coldest, and windiest continent in the world? - Antarctica (called the White Continent)
Who was the first person to discover mainland Antarctica? - Nathaniel Brown Palmer
Who was the first person to reach the South Pole? - Roald Amundsen (Norwegian, 1911)
Who was the first Indian to reach Antarctica?- Dr Paramjit Singh Sehra
Who was the first Indian to visit Antarctica in 1960?- Dr Giriraj Singh Sirohi

Earth

What is the total land area of Earth? - 14,84,90,000 sq. km (29.1% of total surface)
What is the total water area of Earth? - 36,29,00,000 sq. km (70.9% of total surface)
What is the mean density of Earth? - 5,514 kg/m³
What is the equatorial radius and polar radius of Earth? - Equatorial – 6,378 km ; Polar – 6,356 km
What is the average orbital velocity of Earth? - 29.78 km/sec
What is the maximum and minimum distance of Earth from the Sun?
Maximum (Aphelion): 152 million km
Minimum (Perihelion): 147 million km

Asia – Physical & Geographical Importance

Which is the world’s largest desert area of central Asia? - Gobi Desert
Which continent is the birthplace of most major religions? - Asia (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Taoism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism)
Which continent has the largest river system in the world? - Asia (Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Huang-Ho etc.)
Which is the largest delta in Asia? - Sunderbans (India-Bangladesh, Ganga-Brahmaputra delta)
Asia is bounded by how many oceans? - Three – Arctic Ocean (north), Pacific Ocean (east), Indian Ocean (south)
Which sea separates Asia and Africa? - Red Sea & Suez Canal

Antarctica – Special Features

Why is Antarctica called a "white continent"? - Because it is fully covered with snow and ice.
Who was the first English explorer to cross the Antarctic Circle?- James Cook
Which continent has no permanent human habitation and is completely covered with ice?- Antarctica
What is the average winter temperature of Antarctica?- Around −60°C (as low as −89.2°C at Vostok)
Which plateau forms the coldest part of Antarctica?- Antarctic Plateau

Antarctica (Special Information)

When did India establish its first station in Antarctica and what was it called? - Dakshin Gangotri, in 1983 (later buried in ice).
Which is India’s operational Antarctic research base since 1988? - Maitri (in Central Dronning Maud Land region).
Which Indian research base in Antarctica was commissioned in 2012?- Bharati (in Larsemann Hills).
Name two main types of vegetation found in Antarctica. - Lichens and Moss.
Which animal is found in large numbers in Antarctic coastal waters and forms a key food chain resource? - Krill (tiny shrimp-like creatures).
For how many months is the Sun not visible at the South Pole? - From 23rd September to 21st March (6 months).
When and where was the lowest temperature on Earth recorded?−93.2°C, East Antarctic Plateau, 10 August 2010.
When was ozone depletion first discovered in Antarctica? - In the year 1985.
What is the highest peak in Antarctica? - Mt. Vinson Massif.
Which is the only active volcano in Antarctica? - Mt. Erebus.
Antarctica is surrounded by which three oceans? - Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean.
What are the main seas of Antarctica? - Weddell Sea and Ross Sea.
Why is Antarctica called a continent “dedicated to science”? - Because it has no native human population and is used only for research purposes.

Oceans of the World

How many major oceans are there on Earth? - Five – Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic.

Pacific Ocean

Which is the largest and deepest ocean in the world?- Pacific Ocean
What is the total area of the Pacific Ocean? -16,52,40,000 sq. km (largest).
What is the average depth of the Pacific Ocean? - 4,280 m (deepest).
Which trench is the deepest point of the Pacific Ocean and the world? - Mariana Trench (11,034 m).
Most islands in the Pacific Ocean are of which type? - Volcanic or Coral origin.

Atlantic Ocean

Which is the second largest ocean in the world? - Atlantic Ocean (area 8,24,41,000 sq. km).
What is the average depth of the Atlantic Ocean? - 3,900 m.
Which ocean is the busiest and most important for trade routes? - Atlantic Ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean has the world’s longest coastline — True or False? - True.
Name some volcanic islands in the Atlantic Ocean. - Iceland, Azores, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico.

Indian Ocean

Which is the third largest ocean of the world? - Indian Ocean (area 7,34,40,000 sq. km).
What is the average depth of the Indian Ocean? - 3,960 m.
Which is the largest island in the Indian Ocean? - Madagascar.
Which island country of the Indian Ocean is the largest producer of tea? - Sri Lanka.
Name important islands of the Indian Ocean. - Andaman & Nicobar, Seychelles, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Madagascar, Sri Lanka.

Southern Ocean

What are the main warm currents in the Southern Ocean? - South Equatorial Current, Mozambique Current, Madagascar Current.
What are the main cold currents in the Southern Ocean? - Antarctic Current, West Australian Current, Benguela Current.

Arctic Ocean

Which is the smallest and shallowest ocean in the world? - Arctic Ocean.
In which circle does the Arctic Ocean lie entirely?- Arctic Circle.

Longitude & Prime Meridian

What is the Prime Meridian? - The Prime Meridian is the 0° longitude line, which passes through Greenwich, London (UK) and divides the Earth into Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Latitude

What is latitude? - Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.

Q. Which important latitudes are there?

Equator (0°)
Tropic of Cancer (23½° N)
Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S)
Arctic Circle (66½° N)
Antarctic Circle (66½° S)
North Pole (90° N)
South Pole (90° S)

Antipodal Points

What are Antipodal Points? - Antipodal points are locations that are diametrically opposite to each other on the globe.

Ocean Currents

What are ocean currents? - Ocean currents are large-scale movements of seawater in oceans, driven by wind, temperature, salinity, and earth’s rotation.
Types of ocean currents? - Warm currents, Cold currents

Q. Name important ocean currents

Pacific & Atlantic: Gulf Stream (warm), Labrador (cold), Kuroshio (warm), Oyashio (cold), Canary (cold), Brazil (warm), Peru/Humboldt (cold).
Indian Ocean: Mozambique Current (warm), West Australian Current (cold).

Q. Which current is an exception?: Kuroshio Current – It flows northwards despite being on the western side of Pacific.

Biosphere

What is biosphere? The biosphere is the narrow zone of the Earth where land, water, and air interact to support life.
What are the 3 parts of the environment? - Lithosphere (land), Hydrosphere (water), Atmosphere (air).

Equator & Heat Zones

Q. Name the major heat zones of Earth.

Torrid Zone (between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn)
Temperate Zone (between Tropics and Arctic/Antarctic Circles)
Frigid Zone (between Poles and Arctic/Antarctic Circles)

Miscellaneous Important Points

Standard Meridian of India → 82½° E longitude (passes near Allahabad).
Longitude difference of 1° → equals 4 minutes of time.
Equator length → ~40,075 km.
Earth’s axis tilt → 23½°.
Earth’s Shape → Oblate Spheroid.

Prime Meridian passes through which place? - Greenwich, London (UK).
Standard Meridian of India? - 82°30′ E (passes near Mirzapur, UP).
Earth’s axis tilt? - 23½°.
Shape of Earth? - Oblate Spheroid.
Latitude of Equator? - 0°.
Latitude of Tropic of Cancer? - 23½° N.
Latitude of Tropic of Capricorn? - 23½° S.
Latitude of Arctic Circle? - 66½° N.
Latitude of Antarctic Circle? - 66½° S.
Time difference between two longitudes of 1°? - 4 minutes.
Total longitude lines on globe? - 360.
Equator length? - ~40,075 km.
Longest latitude? - Equator.
Which current is warm? - Gulf Stream.
Which current is cold? - Labrador Current.
Exception to warm/cold rule of currents? - Kuroshio Current (warm, but flows north).
Cold current of South America? - Peru / Humboldt Current.
Warm current near Brazil? - Brazil Current.
Ocean current near Japan? - Kuroshio Current (warm), Oyashio Current (cold).
What is Biosphere? - Zone of Earth where life exists.
Three parts of environment? - Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere.
Which zone receives maximum heat? - Torrid Zone.
Which zones have moderate climate? - Temperate Zones.
Which zones are coldest? - Frigid Zones.
What are Antipodal Points? - Places exactly opposite to each other on globe.
Longitude difference between IST and GMT? - 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
180° longitude is called? - International Date Line.
The only latitude that is a great circle? - Equator.
The longitude at 0° is known as? - Prime Meridian.
The point where all longitudes meet? - Poles (North & South).

Earth & Rotation

Earth completes one rotation in → 23 hrs 56 min 4 sec.
Earth completes one revolution in → 365 days 6 hrs 9 min.
Leap year comes once in → 4 years.
Earth’s axis inclination → 66½° with orbital plane.
Distance between Earth & Sun (mean) → 149.6 million km (1 AU).

Longitude & Time

360° longitude = 24 hours.
15° longitude = 1 hour.
1° longitude = 4 minutes.
When it is 12 noon at Greenwich, time at 82°30′ E (India) → 5:30 PM.
India’s standard meridian → passes near Mirzapur (UP).
International Date Line (IDL) → passes through Pacific Ocean.
To avoid dividing islands, IDL → zig-zags.
When crossing IDL eastward → one day is subtracted.
When crossing IDL westward → one day is added.

Solstice & Equinox

Summer Solstice in Northern Hemisphere → 21 June.
Winter Solstice in Northern Hemisphere → 22 December.
On 21 June → Longest day in Northern Hemisphere.
On 22 December → Longest night in Northern Hemisphere.
Spring Equinox → 21 March.
Autumn Equinox → 23 September.
On Equinox → Day & night are equal all over the world.

Oceans & Currents

Largest Ocean → Pacific Ocean.
Smallest Ocean → Arctic Ocean.
Warm Atlantic current → Gulf Stream.
Cold Atlantic current → Labrador.
Warm Pacific current → Kuroshio.
Cold Pacific current → Oyashio.
Cold current along Peru coast → Humboldt (Peru) Current.
Warm current near Brazil → Brazil Current.
Cold current near Africa → Benguela Current.
Warm current near Africa → Agulhas Current.
Fishing grounds are found near → Mixing of warm & cold currents.
Labrador + Gulf Stream mixing region → Best fishing ground.

Biosphere

Lithosphere → Land portion of Earth.
Hydrosphere → Water portion of Earth.
Atmosphere → Air envelope around Earth.
Biosphere → Zone of life on Earth.
Producers in biosphere → Plants.
Consumers in biosphere → Animals.
Decomposers in biosphere → Bacteria, fungi.
Ozone layer lies in → Stratosphere.
Ozone protects from → UV radiation.

Atmosphere Layers

Lowest layer → Troposphere.
All weather changes occur in → Troposphere.
Ozone layer → Stratosphere.
Coldest layer → Mesosphere.
Meteors burn in → Mesosphere.
Radio waves reflect from → Ionosphere.
Auroras occur in → Thermosphere.
Highest layer → Exosphere.

Heat Zones

Torrid Zone → Between 23½° N and 23½° S.
Temperate Zone (North) → Between Tropic of Cancer & Arctic Circle.
Temperate Zone (South) → Between Tropic of Capricorn & Antarctic Circle.
Frigid Zone → Beyond Arctic & Antarctic Circles.
Hottest Zone → Torrid Zone.
Coldest Zone → Frigid Zone.

Map & Miscellaneous

Only latitude which is a great circle → Equator.
Longest latitude → Equator.
Longitudes converge at → Poles.
82°30′ E longitude in India decides → IST.
Earth’s rotation direction → West to East.
Local time depends on → Longitude.
GMT is measured from → 0° longitude.
Arctic Circle latitude → 66½° N.
Antarctic Circle latitude → 66½° S.
Tropic of Cancer latitude → 23½° N.
Tropic of Capricorn latitude → 23½° S.
North Pole latitude → 90° N.
South Pole latitude → 90° S.
Equator latitude → 0°.

Solstice & Equinox

What is Summer Solstice? → On 21 June, Sun is overhead at Tropic of Cancer (23½° N).
Which hemisphere has longest day on 21 June? → Northern Hemisphere.
Which hemisphere has shortest day on 21 June? → Southern Hemisphere.
What is Winter Solstice? → On 22 December, Sun is overhead at Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S).
Which hemisphere has longest day on 22 December? → Southern Hemisphere.
Which hemisphere has shortest day on 22 December? → Northern Hemisphere.
What is Equinox? → Sun is vertically overhead at Equator.
Dates of Equinox → 21 March (Spring) & 23 September (Autumn).
On Equinox → Day & Night are equal everywhere.

Special Natural Phenomena

Midnight Sun is observed in → Arctic Circle & Antarctic Circle regions.
Where is Midnight Sun famous? → Norway, Sweden, Finland, Alaska, Canada.
Which latitude is called “Land of Midnight Sun”? → North of Arctic Circle (66½° N).
On Equinox, duration of day & night → 12 hrs everywhere on Earth.

Atmosphere

Average height of atmosphere → about 1,000 km.
Lower atmosphere contains → Nitrogen (78.08%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.93%), Carbon dioxide (0.03%).
Gas that controls Earth’s temperature → Carbon dioxide.
Gas responsible for Ozone layer → Oxygen
Life-supporting gases in atmosphere → Nitrogen & Oxygen.

Earth Movements & Effects

Earth’s rotation direction → West to East.
Time taken for Earth to rotate 360° → 23 hrs 56 min 4 sec.
One degree of longitude = 4 minutes of time.
Longest latitude → Equator (0°).
Greatest circle on Earth → Equator.
Sun never overhead beyond → Tropics (23½° N to 23½° S).

Coriolis Force

Coriolis Force is due to → Earth’s rotation.
Direction of Coriolis Effect → Right in Northern Hemisphere, Left in Southern Hemisphere.
Coriolis force is maximum at → Poles.
Coriolis force is zero at → Equator.
Winds get deflected due to → Coriolis Force.
Ocean currents also deflected by → Coriolis Effect.

Layers of Atmosphere

Lowest layer of atmosphere → Troposphere.
Average height of Troposphere → 8 km at poles, 18 km at equator.
All weather phenomena occur in → Troposphere.
Upper limit of Troposphere → Tropopause.
Second layer of atmosphere → Stratosphere.
Height of Stratosphere → up to 50 km.
Ozone layer is found in → Stratosphere.
Why is stratosphere ideal for flying jets? → Absence of turbulence/weather.
Third layer of atmosphere → Mesosphere.
Height of Mesosphere → 50 km to 80 km.
Coldest part of atmosphere → Top of Mesosphere (Mesopause).
Fourth layer → Thermosphere.
Height of Thermosphere → 80 km to 400 km.
Ionosphere is part of → Thermosphere.
Radio communication possible due to → Ionosphere (reflects radio waves).
Fifth layer of atmosphere → Exosphere.
Exosphere extends from → 400 km to ~1500 km and beyond.
Light gases like Hydrogen & Helium are present in → Exosphere.

Insolation & Temperature

Insolation = Incoming solar radiation.
Earth receives solar energy in → shortwave radiation.
Atmosphere gets heated mainly by → terrestrial radiation (from Earth’s surface) not direct sunlight.
Maximum insolation received at → Tropical deserts.
Minimum insolation received at → Poles.
Angle of incidence of sunrays determines → Intensity of insolation.

Weather & Climate

Weather = Condition of atmosphere at a given place & time.
Climate = Average weather condition of a place for a long period (30–35 years).
Climate is studied by → Meteorology

Extra Key Facts

Temperature in troposphere → decreases with height (lapse rate).
Standard lapse rate → 6.5°C per 1 km rise.
Thermosphere contains → Aurora phenomena (Northern/Southern lights).
Ozone layer absorbs → Ultraviolet rays of Sun.
Coldest temperature recorded in Mesosphere → about –90°C.

Winds & Pressure Belts

What causes wind? → Movement of air from high pressure to low pressure.
Main cause of wind → Uneven heating of Earth’s surface.
Winds are named according to → Direction from which they blow.
Pressure belts on Earth → Equatorial low, Subtropical high, Subpolar low, Polar high.
Trade winds blow between → 30° N/S & Equator.
Westerlies blow between → 30°–60° latitudes.
Polar winds blow from → Poles to 60° latitudes.
Monsoon is a seasonal reversal of → Winds.
Doldrums are located at → Equatorial low-pressure belt (0°–5° latitudes).
Horse latitudes are found at → 30° N & 30° S (subtropical high pressure zones).

Humidity & Rainfall

Humidity = Amount of water vapour present in air.
Absolute humidity = Actual mass of water vapour in a given volume of air.
Relative humidity = Ratio of actual water vapour to maximum capacity at that temperature.
Instrument to measure humidity → Hygrometer.
Clouds & rainfall formation happens when air → Cools & condenses.
Types of rainfall → Convectional, Orographic (relief), Cyclonic (frontal).
Rainfall in Cherrapunji & Mawsynram is mainly → Orographic rainfall.

Albedo & Insolation

Albedo = Reflecting power of a surface.
Maximum albedo → Snow/Ice (reflects most sunlight).
Minimum albedo → Black soil, water bodies, forests (absorb most sunlight).

Miscellaneous

Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level → 1013.25 mb (millibar).
Instrument to measure air pressure → Barometer.
Winds deflected due to → Coriolis force.
Jet streams are → High velocity winds in upper troposphere.
Monsoon in India is caused by → Differential heating of land & sea + ITCZ shift.

Winds & Pressure

Movement of air in horizontal direction is called → Wind.
Vertical movement of air is called → Air current.
Factor responsible for wind velocity → Pressure gradient.
Doldrums are also called → Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Subtropical calm belts (Horse latitudes) are known for → Light variable winds.
Westerlies in Southern Hemisphere are stronger than Northern Hemisphere because → Less landmass, more ocean.
Polar winds are also called → Polar easterlies.

Humidity & Clouds

Hygrometer is used for measuring → Humidity.
Psychrometer is a type of → Hygrometer.
When relative humidity is 100% → Air is saturated.
Condensation nuclei are necessary for → Cloud formation.
Nimbus clouds are associated with → Rainfall.
Cirrus clouds are found at → Highest altitude.
Cumulonimbus clouds are known as → Thunderstorm/rain clouds.

Types of Rainfall

Convectional rainfall is common in → Equatorial regions.
Orographic rainfall occurs when → Moist air is forced to rise over mountains.
Leeward side of mountain (rain shadow area) → Receives very little rainfall.
Cyclonic rainfall occurs due to → Meeting of warm & cold air masses.

Albedo & Heat

The Earth’s average albedo → 30–35%.
Land surface has higher temperature range than oceans because → Land heats/cools faster.
Snow reflects → 80–90% of solar radiation.
Dark soil absorbs → Most of the solar radiation.

Pressure

Isobars are → Lines connecting points of equal pressure.
Low pressure areas are called → Cyclones.
High pressure areas are called → Anticyclones.
Standard lapse rate in troposphere → 6.5°C per km.

Local Winds

Hot and dry local wind in North India → Loo.
Hot and dry wind in Sahara desert → Harmattan.
Hot and dry wind in Argentina → Zonda.
Hot and dry wind in Southern California → Santa Ana.
Warm and dry wind in Alps region → Foehn.
Warm wind in Rockies (North America) → Chinook.
Cold local wind in Siberia → Buran.
Cold local wind in France → Mistral.
Katabatic wind → Cold downslope wind from mountains/ice sheets.
Anabatic wind → Warm upslope wind during day time.

Land & Sea Breeze

Sea breeze → Blows from sea to land during day.
Land breeze → Blows from land to sea during night.
Sea breeze helps in → Moderating temperature of coastal regions.

Seasonal Winds

Seasonal winds → Winds that change direction with season (e.g., Monsoon).
Indian monsoon is caused due to → Differential heating of land & sea + shifting ITCZ.
Monsoon is best developed in → South Asia (Indian Subcontinent).

Types of Clouds

High clouds (above 6,000 m): Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus.
Middle clouds (2,000–6,000 m): Altostratus, Altocumulus.
Low clouds (below 2,000 m): Stratus, Stratocumulus, Nimbostratus.
Vertical development clouds: Cumulus, Cumulonimbus.
Cirrus clouds look like → Feather-like, fibrous.
Cumulus clouds look like → Cotton wool / heap-like.
Cumulonimbus clouds → Thunderstorm clouds, cause heavy rainfall.
Nimbostratus clouds → Dark, rain-bearing clouds.
Cirrostratus clouds often indicate → Coming rainfall or storm.
Altocumulus clouds are called → Wool pack clouds.
Stratus clouds → Layered, spread like a blanket.

Rainfall & Clouds

Rain-bearing cloud types → Nimbostratus & Cumulonimbus.
Highest clouds → Cirrus (above 8 km).
Lowest clouds → Stratus (below 2 km).
Thickest clouds → Cumulonimbus (vertical extent 12–20 km).

Local Winds (Hot & Dry / Cold)

“Loo” blows in → North India, during summer (hot & dry).
“Harmattan” is also called → Doctor Wind (West Africa).
“Chinook” is called → Snow eater (melts snow in Rockies).
“Foehn” wind benefits agriculture in → Switzerland (ripens grapes).
“Santa Ana” winds cause → Forest fires in California.
“Zonda” winds blow in → Argentina (Andes mountains).
“Mistral” wind blows in → Rhône Valley (France), cold & dry.
“Buran” wind blows in → Siberia, very cold.
Katabatic wind flows → Downslope due to gravity, cold.
Anabatic wind flows → Upslope during day, warm.

Land & Sea Breeze

During day, land heats faster than sea → Sea breeze flows inland.
During night, land cools faster than sea → Land breeze flows seaward.
Sea breeze is stronger in → Tropical coastal areas.
Land breeze is generally → Weaker than sea breeze.

Seasonal Winds / Monsoon

Monsoon winds reverse direction → Twice a year (Summer & Winter).
Summer monsoon in India → Southwest monsoon.
Winter monsoon in India → Northeast monsoon.
Largest monsoon system in the world → South Asian monsoon.
Seasonal winds are common in → South Asia, West Africa, SE Asia.

Clouds (Appearance & Effects)

Cirrus clouds indicate → Fair weather (but storm may follow).
Cirrostratus clouds form a → Halo around Sun/Moon.
Altostratus clouds → Grayish sheets, block Sun.
Altocumulus clouds → White/grey patches, wool pack.
Cumulus clouds → Fair weather clouds.
Cumulonimbus → Cause thunderstorms, hail, tornadoes.
Nimbostratus → Dark, steady rain/snow.
Stratus → Fog-like, cover large sky portion.
Stratocumulus → Low, lumpy, bring drizzle.

Rainfall & Weather

Rain-shadow area → Leeward side of mountain.
Heaviest rainfall caused by → Cumulonimbus clouds.
Cloud thickness indicates → Amount of rainfall.
Cirrus clouds composed of → Ice crystals.

Geography – Earth’s Interior & Rocks

What are Igneous Rocks?: Formed by the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. Examples – Basalt, Granite. Types – Intrusive (Plutonic) and Extrusive (Volcanic).
What are Sedimentary Rocks?: Formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediments in layers. Examples – Sandstone, Limestone, Shale. They often contain fossils.
What are Metamorphic Rocks?: Formed when existing rocks (igneous or sedimentary) are changed by heat, pressure, or chemical processes. Examples – Marble (from limestone), Slate (from shale)
What are Volcanic Islands: Islands formed by volcanic activity on the ocean floor. Examples – Hawaii, Iceland, and Mauritius.
What are Coral Islands?: Formed from coral polyps and calcium carbonate accumulation. Examples – Lakshadweep Islands.
What are Residual Mountains?: Mountains formed by erosion of surrounding materials, leaving resistant parts behind. Example – Aravalli Range (India).
What are Fold Mountains?: Formed by folding of Earth’s crust due to tectonic forces. Examples – Himalayas, Alps, Andes.
What are Block Mountains?: Formed by faulting where large blocks of crust are raised or lowered. Examples – Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany).

What are Plateaus?: Flat-topped elevated landforms.

Tectonic Plateau (Deccan Plateau)

Volcanic Plateau (Columbia Plateau)

Dissected Plateau (Chotanagpur Plateau)

What are Plains and their types? :Large flat or gently rolling lands.

Structural Plains
Depositional Plains
Erosional Plains

What is Magma? : Molten material beneath the Earth’s surface containing gases and crystals.
What is Lava: When magma reaches the Earth’s surface through volcanic eruption, it is called lava.
What are Minerals? :Naturally occurring inorganic substances with definite chemical composition and physical properties.

14. What are the Main Layers of Earth?

Crust – Outer layer (Silica & Aluminium – SIAL; Silica & Magnesium – SIMA).
Mantle – Middle layer (Iron & Magnesium).
Core – Inner layer (Nickel & Iron – NIFE).

15. What are the Major Elements of Earth’s Crust?

Answer:

Oxygen (O)
Silicon (Si)
Aluminium (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Magnesium (Mg)

16. Define Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, and Mesosphere.

Answer:

Lithosphere – Solid outer shell of Earth (crust + upper mantle).
Asthenosphere – Partially molten layer below lithosphere.
Mesosphere – Lower mantle with more rigidity.

What is the Moho Discontinuity (Moho)? : Boundary between the Earth’s crust and mantle where seismic waves change velocity.
What is the Gutenberg Discontinuity?: Boundary between the mantle and core.
What is the Conrad Discontinuity?: Boundary between the upper and lower crust.

What are Seismic Waves and their types?: Energy waves produced by earthquakes.

Types:

P-waves (Primary): Travel through solids & liquids.

S-waves (Secondary): Travel only through solids.

L-waves (Surface): Cause most destruction.

Geography: Earth’s Interior, Rocks & Volcanoes

1. What are the major types of rocks based on formation process?

Igneous Rocks – Formed by cooling of magma/lava.
Sedimentary Rocks – Formed by deposition and compaction of sediments.
Metamorphic Rocks – Formed by transformation of existing rocks under heat & pressure.

2. Give examples of transformation between rock types.

Limestone → Marble
Shale → Slate
Sandstone → Quartzite
Granite → Gneiss

3. What is the Rock Cycle?: It describes the continuous process of transformation of rocks from one type to another due to weathering, erosion, melting, and metamorphism.

What is the approximate thickness of Earth's crust?: Continental crust: about 35 km (can reach up to 70 km under mountains), Oceanic crust: about 5–10 km.
What is the composition of Earth’s Core?: Composed mainly of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe) — hence called NIFE. It has an outer liquid layer and an inner solid layer.
What is the average density of the Earth?: Approximately 5.52 g/cm³
Which elements dominate the Earth’s crust?: Oxygen and Silicon together make up about 75% of the Earth’s crust.

4. What are the main types of volcanic materials?

Lava (Molten rock)
Ash and Dust
Volcanic Bombs and Blocks
Gases (CO₂, SO₂, H₂O vapor)

5. What are the types of volcanoes based on activity?

Active Volcanoes: Erupt frequently (e.g., Stromboli, Mauna Loa).
Dormant Volcanoes: Erupted in past, may erupt again (e.g., Vesuvius).
Extinct Volcanoes: No sign of eruption (e.g., Mount Popa in Myanmar).

6. What are the types of volcanoes based on shape and eruption style?

Shield Volcano – Broad, gentle slopes (Hawaiian volcanoes).
Composite Volcano – Alternating lava & ash layers (Mount Fuji).
Cinder Cone Volcano – Small, steep slopes (Parícutin, Mexico).
Caldera – Large crater formed by collapse (Crater Lake, USA).

What are Earthquakes? :Vibrations or shaking of the Earth’s crust due to sudden release of energy.
Define Focus and Epicenter. : Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside Earth where the earthquake originates. Epicenter: The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
What instrument is used to record earthquakes? :Seismograph — records seismic waves
What scales measure earthquake strength?: Richter Scale: Measures magnitude (energy released). Mercalli Scale: Measures intensity (damage caused).

5. What are the main causes of earthquakes?

Tectonic movements
Volcanic activity
Human-induced (reservoir, mining, explosions)
Faulting and folding of rocks

What are Tsunamis?: Large sea waves caused by undersea earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions.
What is Isostasy?: State of gravitational balance between Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere — explains how continents “float” on denser mantle.

6. What are the main theories of Earth’s structure?

Homogeneous Theory: Earth was once uniform in composition.
Differentiation Theory: Heavy materials sank to the core; lighter formed crust.

7. What is Continental Drift Theory (by Alfred Wegener)?

Continents were once part of a single landmass (Pangaea) which later drifted apart.
Evidence: Matching fossils, rock formations, and coastlines.

8. What is Plate Tectonic Theory?: Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates that move over the asthenosphere due to convection currents in the mantle.

Plates interact at boundaries:

Divergent (move apart)
Convergent (collide)
Transform (slide past)

What are the effects of Plate Movements? :Formation of mountains, rift valleys, trenches, and earthquakes.
What are Ocean Trenches?: Deep, narrow depressions in ocean floor formed at convergent plate boundaries. Example – Mariana Trench (Deepest, ~11 km).
What are Mid-Ocean Ridges?: Underwater mountain chains formed at divergent boundaries where magma rises. Example – Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
What are Rift Valleys?: Long, narrow depressions formed when Earth’s crust splits apart. Example – East African Rift Valley.
What are Fold Mountains and examples?: Mountains formed by compression and folding of rock layers. Examples – Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes.

Minerals, Soils & Landforms of the Earth

1. What are Minerals?: Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances with definite chemical composition and physical properties. They are the basic building blocks of rocks.

2. What are the main types of Minerals?

Metallic Minerals – contain metals. Examples: Iron, Copper, Zinc, Lead, Manganese, Bauxite.
Non-Metallic Minerals – do not contain metals. Examples: Mica, Gypsum, Salt, Limestone.
Energy Minerals – used for energy production. Examples: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Uranium.

3. What are the characteristics of Metallic Minerals?

Shiny appearance
Can be melted
Good conductors of heat & electricity
Found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

4. What are Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Minerals?

Ferrous Minerals: Contain iron (e.g., Hematite, Magnetite, Pyrite).
Non-Ferrous Minerals: Do not contain iron (e.g., Copper, Lead, Zinc, Aluminium).

5. What is the difference between Ore and Mineral?

Mineral: Naturally occurring compound.
Ore: Mineral from which metal can be extracted profitably.

6. What is the importance of minerals in the economy? : They provide raw materials for industries, generate employment, and contribute to GDP through exports.

7. What are the methods of mining minerals?

Open-cast Mining
Shaft Mining
Drilling
Quarrying

8. What are the major Iron Ore producing countries?: China, Australia, Brazil, India, and Russia.

54. What are the major types of Soils in India?

Alluvial Soil
Black Soil (Regur)
Red Soil
Laterite Soil
Arid (Desert) Soil
Mountain Soil

9. What is Alluvial Soil?: Formed by deposition of river sediments — rich in potash & lime, suitable for rice, wheat, sugarcane. Found in Indo-Gangetic plains.

10. What is Black Soil?

Also known as Regur Soil or Cotton Soil, formed from volcanic rocks.
Rich in clay, iron, and lime.
Best for cotton cultivation — found in Deccan Plateau.

11. What is Red Soil?

Formed by weathering of crystalline rocks — rich in iron but poor in nitrogen and humus.
Found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Chhattisgarh.

12. What is Laterite Soil?

Formed under high temperature & rainfall conditions due to leaching.
Rich in iron & aluminium but poor in fertility.
Used for building bricks.

13. What is Arid (Desert) Soil?

Found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Sandy, saline, and poor in humus.
Can be made fertile through irrigation (e.g., Indira Gandhi Canal).

14. What is Mountain Soil?

Found in Himalayan regions.
Varies with altitude — supports tea, coffee, and horticulture.

15. What are the major processes of Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)?

Weathering of rocks
Leaching
Humification
Illuviation & Eluviation

16. What are the main agents of Soil Erosion?: Water, wind, deforestation, overgrazing, and faulty farming practices.

17. What are the methods to control Soil Erosion?

Contour ploughing
Terrace farming
Afforestation
Strip cropping
Building check dams

17. What is Leaching?: Process by which soluble nutrients are washed away from the soil by heavy rainfall, reducing fertility.

18. What are the main types of Landforms?

Mountains – high elevations (Himalayas).
Plateaus – elevated flat-topped areas (Deccan Plateau).
Plains – flat lowlands (Indo-Gangetic Plains).
Valleys – depressions between mountains.
Deserts – arid sandy regions (Thar Desert).

18. What are the main agents of Landform development?

Endogenic Forces: Origin inside the Earth (earthquakes, volcanoes, folding, faulting).
Exogenic Forces: Origin outside the Earth (weathering, erosion, deposition).

19. What are Endogenic Forces?: Forces acting from within the Earth responsible for upliftment, volcanic eruption, and deformation.

20. What are Exogenic Forces?: External forces responsible for wearing down landforms — includes rivers, wind, glaciers, and waves.

21. What are the processes of Erosion and Deposition?

Erosion: Removal of soil/rock by agents like water, wind, glaciers.
Deposition: Laying down of eroded material forming plains, deltas, and sand dunes.

22. What is Weathering?: Breaking down of rocks at or near Earth’s surface through physical, chemical, and biological processes.

23. What are the types of Weathering?

Physical Weathering: Due to temperature change, frost, pressure.
Chemical Weathering: Due to oxidation, carbonation, hydration.
Biological Weathering: Due to plant roots, microbes, and animals.

24. What are Deltas?: Landforms formed at river mouths where rivers deposit sediments. Example – Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta (largest in world).

25. What are Sand Dunes: Hills of sand formed by wind deposition in deserts. Types – Barchan, Seif dunes.

26. What are Glaciers and their landforms?: Glaciers are large masses of moving ice. They form landforms like U-shaped valleys, moraines, and cirques.

27. What are Coastal Landforms formed by waves?

Erosional: Cliffs, arches, stacks.
Depositional: Beaches, spits, bars, lagoons.

Earthquakes and Plate Movements

What is an earthquake? ➡ An earthquake is the shaking of the Earth's surface caused by a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere due to tectonic movements.
What are the main causes of earthquakes? ➡ Earthquakes mainly occur due to faulting, folding, volcanic activity, and plate movements in the Earth's crust.

What are the different types of earthquakes?

(a) Tectonic earthquakes – Caused by movement of tectonic plates.

(b) Volcanic earthquakes – Caused by volcanic activity.

(c) Collapse earthquakes – Occur due to collapse of underground caves/mines.

(d) Explosion earthquakes – Caused by nuclear or chemical explosions.

What are Seismic Waves? ➡ Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers as a result of an earthquake, volcanic eruption, or explosion.

What are the main types of seismic waves?
(a) P-waves (Primary waves) – Travel fastest through solids and liquids.
(b) S-waves (Secondary waves) – Travel only through solids.`
(c) L-waves (Long waves / Surface waves) – Cause maximum destruction on the surface.

Which layer of the Earth is the focus of earthquakes? ➡ The focus (hypocenter) is the point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates. The epicenter is the point directly above it on the surface.
What is the difference between focus and epicenter? ➡ Focus – The underground point where energy is released. Epicenter – The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
What is meant by seismograph and seismogram? ➡ A seismograph records earthquake vibrations. ➡ The seismogram is the recorded graph or data of the earthquake.
What is the Richter Scale? ➡ The Richter Scale measures the magnitude (energy released) of an earthquake. ➡ It is a logarithmic scale developed by Charles F. Richter in 1935.
What is the Mercalli Scale? ➡ The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale measures the intensity (effects and damage) of an earthquake, from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction).
Which region of the world is most earthquake-prone? ➡ The Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire) accounts for about 80% of the world's earthquakes. ➡ The Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt are also major seismic zones.
What are tectonic plates? ➡ The Earth's lithosphere is divided into major and minor plates that float over the asthenosphere. Examples: Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, African Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Antarctic Plate.

What are the three types of plate boundaries?

(a) Convergent Boundary – Plates move towards each other (e.g., Himalayas).

(b) Divergent Boundary – Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).

(c) Transform Boundary – Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

What is the relationship between volcanoes and earthquakes? ➡ Most volcanoes and earthquakes occur along plate boundaries, especially at subduction zones and mid-ocean ridges.
What is meant by the term “Ring of Fire”? ➡ The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions due to active plate boundaries.
What are shadow zones in seismology? ➡ Areas on Earth where no direct P or S waves from an earthquake are recorded are called seismic shadow zones, helping scientists understand Earth’s internal structure.

What is the difference between P-waves and S-waves?

Feature P-Waves S-Waves

Speed Faster Slower

Medium Solids & Liquids Solids only

Motion Push-pull Up-down

Damage Less More destructive

Where do most shallow-focus earthquakes occur? ➡ Near transform faults and divergent boundaries (0–70 km deep).
What is the importance of plate tectonics theory in understanding earthquakes? ➡ It explains that earthquakes occur mainly along plate boundaries due to interaction and movement between plates.
What are the effects of earthquakes? ➡ Ground shaking, landslides, tsunamis, surface rupture, fires, and infrastructure damage.

Earthquakes & Seismology

What is the point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates? : Focus (Hypocenter).
The point directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface is called?: Epicenter.
Which instrument records earthquake waves?: Seismograph.
What is recorded by a seismograph?: Seismogram.
Who developed the Richter Scale?: Charles F. Richter (1935).
What does the Richter Scale measure?: Magnitude of earthquake.
What does the Mercalli Scale measure?: Intensity (damage caused).
What is the range of the Mercalli Scale?: I to XII.
Which waves travel fastest through the Earth? : P-waves (Primary waves).
Which waves travel only through solids? : S-waves (Secondary waves).
Which waves cause maximum destruction?: L-waves (Surface waves).
What is the average speed of P-waves?: 5 to 8 km per second.
What is the average speed of S-waves? : 3 to 4 km per second.
What is a Seismic Shadow Zone?: Area where earthquake waves are not recorded.
What percentage of world earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific Belt?: About 80%.
What percentage of world earthquakes occur in the Mid-World Mountain Belt (Himalayan-Mediterranean Belt)?: About 15%.
What is the “Ring of Fire”?: Zone around the Pacific Ocean with frequent earthquakes and volcanoes.
What are tectonic plates made of?: Lithosphere (crust + upper mantle).
How many major tectonic plates exist?: Seven major plates.
Which is the largest tectonic plate?: Pacific Plate.
Which plate boundary forms mountains like the Himalayas?: Convergent boundary.
Which plate boundary forms mid-ocean ridges?: Divergent boundary.
Which plate boundary causes transform faults like the San Andreas Fault?: Transform boundary.
Where do shallow-focus earthquakes occur?: At transform and divergent boundaries (0–70 km).
Where do deep-focus earthquakes occur?: At subduction zones (up to 700 km).
Which country is most affected by earthquakes in the Ring of Fire? : Japan.
The 2001 Bhuj earthquake occurred in which Indian state?: Gujarat.
The 2015 major earthquake in Nepal was caused by which tectonic plates?: Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates.
Which Indian region falls in Seismic Zone V (highest risk)?: Northeast India, Kashmir, Himachal, and parts of Bihar.
Which Indian region falls in Seismic Zone II (least risk)?: Peninsular India (Deccan Plateau).
Which scale is logarithmic in nature?: Richter Scale.
What is the typical depth of shallow-focus earthquakes?: Less than 70 km.
What is the typical depth of intermediate-focus earthquakes?: Between 70–300 km.
What is the typical depth of deep-focus earthquakes?: Between 300–700 km.
Which boundary is responsible for volcanic island arcs?: Convergent boundary (oceanic-oceanic).
Which fault is most studied for transform movements?: San Andreas Fault (USA).
Which ocean has the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?: Atlantic Ocean.
What are aftershocks?: Smaller tremors following a major earthquake.
What are foreshocks?: Minor shocks that occur before the main earthquake.
What is the term for the study of earthquakes?: Seismology.

Earthquake Zones of India (Seismic Zonation)

India is divided into four major seismic zones by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) – Zone II to Zone V (Zone I no longer in use).

Zone Risk Level Regions Covered Remarks

Zone V Very High Risk Entire North-East India, parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of Kutch, and North Bihar Maximum seismic activity
Zone IV High Risk Delhi, parts of Jammu, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, and parts of North Maharashtra Frequent moderate quakes
Zone III Moderate Risk Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep, remaining parts of Gujarat, and plains of UP Moderate tremors
Zone II Low Risk Peninsular India (Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu) Stable shield region

Major Fault Lines in India

Fault Line Location Significance

Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) Along the southern edge of the Himalayas Causes frequent Himalayan earthquakes
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) Between Siwalik and Lesser Himalayas Major seismically active line
Main Central Thrust (MCT) Between Lesser and Greater Himalayas Source of many earthquakes
Kirthar Fault Western India (Rajasthan–Sindh) Causes desert tremors
Narmada-Son Lineament Central India Ancient rift zone; causes intraplate earthquakes
Godavari & Mahanadi Faults Eastern India Associated with rift valleys
Koyna Fault Western Maharashtra Reservoir-induced seismicity near Koyna Dam
Rann of Kutch Fault Gujarat Epicenter of 2001 Bhuj earthquake

Major Earthquakes in Indian History

Year Region Magnitude Remarks

1819 Rann of Kutch 8.3 Created Allah Bund uplift

1897 Shillong Plateau 8.7 One of the largest in NE India

1934 Bihar–Nepal 8.1 Severe destruction in Patna

1950 Assam 8.6 20th century’s strongest quake in India

1993 Latur, Maharashtra 6.4 Intraplate quake in stable Deccan

2001 Bhuj, Gujarat 7.7 Most destructive in modern India

2004 Indian Ocean 9.1 Caused massive tsunami

2015 Nepal (felt in India) 7.8 Caused extensive damage in Bihar, UP

How many seismic zones are there in India?: Four (Zone II to Zone V).
Which is the most active earthquake zone of India?: Zone V.
Which Indian state falls entirely in Zone V?: Mizoram.
Which Union Territory is in Zone V?: Jammu & Kashmir.
Delhi falls under which seismic zone?: Zone IV.
Gujarat’s Bhuj region is part of which zone?: Zone V.
Which Indian region lies in Zone II (least active)?: Peninsular India (Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu).
The Himalayas fall under which seismic zone?: Zone V.
The 2001 Bhuj earthquake was caused by which fault?: Rann of Kutch Fault.
Which dam area is known for reservoir-induced earthquakes?: Koyna Dam (Maharashtra).
The Narmada–Son Lineament runs across which part of India?: Central India (East–West direction).
The 1950 Assam earthquake was caused by collision of which plates?: Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate.
Which Indian city was worst affected by the 1993 Latur earthquake?: Killari village, Maharashtra.
What was the magnitude of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake?: 9.1 on the Richter scale.
Which earthquake triggered the Indian Ocean Tsunami?: 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake.
Which fault caused the great Bihar–Nepal earthquake (1934)?: Himalayan Frontal Fault.
What is “Intraplate Earthquake”?: Earthquake occurring within a tectonic plate (e.g., Latur 1993).
What is “Interplate Earthquake”?: Earthquake occurring along plate boundaries (e.g., Himalayas).
Which Indian seismic zone has the highest building safety code requirements?: Zone V.
Which plate is moving northward causing Himalayan uplift?: Indo-Australian Plate.

Volcano

What is a volcano? : A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which molten rock, gases, and ash are ejected.
What is magma?: Magma is molten rock material beneath the Earth’s surface.
What is lava?: When magma reaches the surface during an eruption, it is called lava.
What is the vent of a volcano?: The vent is the opening through which lava and gases come out.
What is the crater of a volcano?: The funnel-shaped depression at the top of a volcanic cone.
What is a caldera?: A large depression formed when a volcano collapses after an eruption (e.g., Taal Volcano, Philippines).

Types of Volcanoes (Based on Frequency of Eruption)

How many main types of volcanoes are there based on activity? : Three – Active, Dormant, and Extinct.
What are Active Volcanoes?: Volcanoes that erupt frequently or have erupted in recent history (e.g., Mt. Etna, Mt. Stromboli).
What are Dormant Volcanoes?: Volcanoes that have not erupted in a long time but may erupt again (e.g., Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji).
What are Extinct Volcanoes?: Volcanoes that have not erupted for thousands of years and show no signs of activity (e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro).

Types of Volcanoes (Based on Structure)

What are the four main types of volcanoes based on structure?: Shield, Composite (Strato), Cinder Cone, and Dome Volcanoes.
What is a Shield Volcano?: Large, broad volcano with gentle slopes and fluid lava (e.g., Mauna Loa in Hawaii).
What is a Composite Volcano?: Steep-sided volcano formed by alternate layers of lava and ash (e.g., Mt. Fuji, Mt. St. Helens).
What is a Cinder Cone Volcano?: Small cone-shaped volcano formed from ash and pyroclastic material (e.g., Paricutin, Mexico).
What is a Lava Dome Volcano?: Formed by slow eruption of viscous lava that piles near the vent (e.g., Mt. Pelée, Martinique).

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

Eruptions are generally classified into how many types?: Two – Explosive and Effusive (Quiet).
What is an Explosive Eruption?: Violent eruption throwing ash, gases, and rocks high into the air.
What is an Effusive Eruption?: Gentle outpouring of fluid lava with less explosion.
Give an example of an explosive eruption.: Mt. Krakatoa (1883), Indonesia.
Give an example of an effusive eruption.: Kilauea, Hawaii.

Other Volcanic Terms

What are Fissure Eruptions?: Lava flows out through cracks instead of a central vent (e.g., Deccan Traps, India).
What are Hot Springs and Geysers?: Heated groundwater phenomena found in volcanic regions (e.g., Yellowstone Park, USA).
What are Volcanic Bombs?: Large molten rock fragments ejected during eruption that solidify in air.
What is Pyroclastic Flow?: A fast-moving current of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris.
What is Ash Fall?: Deposition of fine volcanic ash after an eruption.

Volcanoes – Global Distribution

Most volcanoes are found along which zones?: Plate boundaries (especially subduction zones).
Which zone has the highest concentration of volcanoes?: Pacific Ring of Fire.
What percentage of the world’s active volcanoes lie in the Ring of Fire?: About 75%.
Example of volcanoes along the Pacific Ring of Fire?: Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines), Mt. St. Helens (USA).
Example of volcanoes along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?: Mt. Hecla (Iceland).

Volcanoes in India

Which is the only active volcano in India?: Barren Island Volcano (Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
Which is India’s dormant volcano?: Narcondam Island (Andaman region).
Which is an example of fissure eruption in India?: Deccan Traps, Maharashtra.
What type of lava is found in Deccan Traps?: Basaltic lava.
What is the age of the Deccan Trap formation?: Around 65 million years ago (Cretaceous period).

Major Volcanoes of the World

Highest active volcano in the world?: Mt. Cotopaxi, Ecuador.
Largest active volcano on Earth?: Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
Famous dormant volcano that destroyed Pompeii?: Mt. Vesuvius, Italy.
Famous extinct volcano in Tanzania?: Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Mt. Krakatoa belongs to which country?: Indonesia.

A volcano is a vent or opening in the Earth's crust through which magma, gases, and ash escape to the surface.

Types of Volcanoes (Based on Frequency of Eruption)

Active Volcanoes – Erupt frequently or recently. Examples: Mount Etna (Italy), Mount Stromboli (Italy), Mount Vesuvius (Italy), Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fujiyama (Japan). One-liner: Active = still erupting or erupted in recent past.
Dormant Volcanoes – Not erupted for long but may erupt again. Examples: Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Mount Fujiyama (Japan), Mount Krakatoa (Indonesia). One-liner: Dormant = sleeping volcano.
Extinct Volcanoes – No record of eruption and unlikely to erupt again. Examples: Aconcagua (Andes, Argentina), Mount Popa (Myanmar). One-liner: Extinct = dead volcano.

Types of Eruptions (Based on Nature of Lava)

Central Eruption – Lava, gases, and ash are ejected from one central vent. One-liner: One vent – one eruption.
Fissure Eruption – Lava escapes through long cracks or fissures. Example: Deccan Traps (India), Icelandic lava plateau. One-liner: Lava spreads widely forming plateaus.

Types of Volcanic Materials

Lava: Molten rock on surface.
Ash & Dust: Fine rock particles.
Volcanic bombs: Large fragments of solidified lava.
Gases: Steam, CO₂, SO₂, etc.

One-liner: Volcano throws lava, ash, bombs & gases.

Famous Volcanic Eruptions

Mt. Vesuvius (Italy) – Destroyed Pompeii (79 AD)
Mt. Krakatoa (1883) – Indonesia, violent explosion heard 4800 km away
Mt. St. Helens (1980) – USA, major eruption
Mt. Etna – Most active volcano in Europe

One-liner: Mt. Vesuvius buried Pompeii; Krakatoa was the loudest blast.

Volcanoes in India

Barren Island (Andaman & Nicobar) – Only active volcano in India.
Deccan Traps (Maharashtra) – Example of ancient fissure eruption (extinct).

One-liner: India’s only active volcano = Barren Island.

Distribution of Volcanoes

Most volcanoes are located along plate boundaries, especially Pacific Ring of Fire (world’s most active volcanic belt).

One-liner: Pacific Ring of Fire = world’s volcano zone.

Benefits of Volcanoes

Fertile soil (e.g., Java, Italy)
Geothermal energy
Mineral deposits (sulphur, copper)

One-liner: Volcanoes = danger + natural fertilizer factory.

Volcanoes & Mountains

What is the most accepted theory of the origin of volcanoes?: Plate Tectonic Theory.

Name the major volcanic belts/zones of the world.

Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire)

Mid-Atlantic Belt

Mid-Continental BeltWhat is the Circum-Pacific Belt also known as?:Ring of Fire.

Name a volcano situated near Kenya, in the Great Rift Valley.: Mt. Kilimanjaro.

Mt. Cotopaxi and Chimborazo volcanoes are found in which country?: Ecuador.

Which volcano in Ecuador is known for its high activity?: Cotopaxi.

Mt. Fujiyama is located in which country?: Japan.

Name the famous volcano of Italy.: Mt. Vesuvius.

Krakatoa volcano is located in which country? - Indonesia.

Mt. Etna is located in which country?: Italy.

Which is the highest active volcano in the world?: Cotopaxi (Ecuador).

Name a dormant volcano in Japan.: Mt. Fujiyama.

What is the location of Stromboli volcano?: Italy.

Mountains & Plateaus

Name the types of mountains based on origin.

Fold Mountains

Block Mountains

Volcanic Mountains

Residual Mountains

Name two examples of Fold Mountains.: Himalayas (Asia), Andes (South America).
Name two examples of Block Mountains.: Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany).
Kilimanjaro is an example of which type of mountain?: Volcanic Mountain.
Name the highest plateau in the world.: Tibetan Plateau.
Deccan Plateau is located in which country?: India.
Which plateau is known as the “Roof of the World”?: Pamir Plateau.
Colorado Plateau is situated in which country?: USA.
Columbia Plateau is located in which country?: USA.
Patagonian Plateau is located in which country?: Argentina.
Meseta Plateau is situated in which country?: Spain.
Ranchi Plateau is situated in which part of India?: Jharkhand.

Miscellaneous Quick One-Liners

Young Mountains → Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps.
Old Fold Mountains → Appalachians, Ural, Aravallis.
Volcanic Mountains Examples → Kilimanjaro, Fujiyama, Cotopaxi.
Residual Mountains Examples → Aravalli (India), Appalachians (USA).
Mid-Atlantic Ridge → Submarine volcanic belt in the Atlantic Ocean.
Great Rift Valley → Associated with volcanic activity in Africa.

Volcano Classification

What are the three types of volcanoes based on activity?

Active Volcanoes – Frequently erupt (e.g., Stromboli, Cotopaxi)

Dormant Volcanoes – Currently quiet but may erupt again (e.g., Fujiyama)

Extinct Volcanoes – Not expected to erupt again (e.g., Mt. Popa in Myanmar)

What is an active volcano?: A volcano that erupts frequently and regularly.
What is a dormant volcano?: A volcano that is currently inactive but may erupt in the future.
What is an extinct volcano?: A volcano that has not erupted in historical times and is not expected to erupt again.
Give examples of active volcanoes.: Stromboli (Italy), Cotopaxi (Ecuador), Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Etna (Italy).
Give examples of dormant volcanoes.: Fujiyama (Japan), Mt. Vesuvius (Italy – currently dormant, erupted in 79 AD).
Give examples of extinct volcanoes.: Mt. Popa (Myanmar), Mt. Kenya (Kenya), Edinburgh (Scotland).

Major Volcanic Regions of the World

Name the three major volcanic zones of the world.

Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire)

Mid-Atlantic Belt

Mid-Continental Belt

Which volcanic belt is associated with oceanic trenches and island arcs?: Circum-Pacific Belt.
Which belt includes the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?: Mid-Atlantic Belt.
Which belt passes through Mediterranean region to Himalayas?: Mid-Continental Belt.

Plateaus

How are plateaus defined?: Plateaus are flat areas with low height variations, generally elevated above surrounding areas.

Name some important plateaus of the world.

Tibetan Plateau (China)

Deccan Plateau (India)

Patagonian Plateau (Argentina)

Colorado & Columbia Plateaus (USA)

Meseta Plateau (Spain)

What is the Pamir Plateau famous as?: “Roof of the World.”
Which plateau is called the “Roof of the World”?: Pamir Plateau.

Mountain Classification

What are residual mountains?: Mountains formed from old fold mountains after prolonged erosion. Examples: Aravalli (India), Appalachians (USA), Ural (Russia)
What are block mountains?: Mountains formed due to faults in the Earth's crust.Examples: Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany).
What are volcanic mountains?: Mountains formed due to accumulation of volcanic materials. Examples: Kilimanjaro, Fujiyama, Cotopaxi.

Ring of Fire → Circum-Pacific Belt.
Cotopaxi → Active volcano in Ecuador (highest active volcano).
Kilimanjaro → Volcanic mountain in Tanzania, Africa.
Pamir Plateau → Roof of the World.
Vosges & Black Forest → Block mountains in Europe.
Mid-Continental Belt → Passes through Mediterranean, Alps, Himalayas, up to Indonesia.
Fujiyama → Dormant volcano, Japan.
Stromboli → Active volcano, Italy.

Landforms Created by Rivers

What are the main landforms created by river action? : Gorges, Canyons, Waterfalls, Meanders, Ox-bow Lakes, Flood Plains, Levees, Deltas.
What is a gorge?: A narrow, deep valley with steep slopes formed by down-cutting rivers. Examples: Indus Gorge, Brahmaputra Gorge.
What is a canyon?: A very deep, narrow valley with steep, vertical sides, wider at the top than at the bottom, usually found in arid regions. Example: Grand Canyon (USA).
How are gorges formed?: By rivers cutting rapidly downwards into their beds in the upper course.

How are canyons different from gorges?

Gorge → Narrow top and bottom, found in humid regions.

Canyon → Wide at the top, narrow at the bottom, found in dry/arid regions.

Waterfalls & River Valleys

What is a waterfall? : A vertical drop of a river or stream where water falls freely over a rock face.
How are waterfalls formed?: Formed where hard rock overlies soft rock; the river erodes the soft rock more rapidly, causing a sudden fall.

Give examples of waterfalls

Angel Falls (Venezuela) – Highest in the world

Jog Falls (India) – Sharavathi River

Victoria Falls (Zambezi River) – Africa

Niagara Falls (between USA and Canada)

Meanders, Ox-bow Lakes, Flood Plains

What is a meander?: A bend or loop in the course of a river, formed due to lateral erosion and deposition.
What is an ox-bow lake?: A horseshoe-shaped lake formed when a meander is cut off from the main river.
What are flood plains?: Flat, fertile plains formed on either side of the river by deposition of alluvium during floods.
What are levees?: Natural embankments formed along river banks due to deposition of sediments during floods.

Deltas

What is a delta?: A triangular-shaped landform formed at the mouth of a river where it deposits sediments.

Name some major deltas of the world.

Ganga–Brahmaputra Delta – Largest in the world (India–Bangladesh).

Nile Delta (Egypt)

Mississippi Delta (USA)

Niger Delta (Nigeria)

How are deltas formed?: When rivers with large sediment load enter standing water (sea/lake), lose velocity, and deposit sediments.

What are the types of deltas?

Arcuate (Arc-shaped) – Nile

Bird’s Foot Delta – Mississippi

Estuarine Delta – Tidal influence dominates.

Landforms Created by Glaciers

What type of valleys are created by glaciers?: U-shaped valleys, formed due to glacial erosion.
What are glacial troughs?: Deep, broad valleys with steep sides formed by glacier movement.
What is a cirque?: Bowl-shaped hollow at the head of a glacial valley.
What are moraines? Ridges of debris (till) deposited by glaciers. Types: Lateral, Medial, Terminal, Ground Moraines.

Gorge → Very narrow, deep valley; steep sides.
Canyon → Wider top, found in dry regions (e.g., Grand Canyon).
Jog Falls → Sharavathi River, India.
Flood Plains → Very fertile; formed by river deposition.
Levees → Natural embankments.
Delta → Triangular landform at river mouth.
Arcuate Delta → Nile; Bird’s Foot Delta → Mississippi.
Glacial valleys → U-shaped.
River valleys → V-shaped.

Glaciers

What is a glacier?: A large mass of moving ice formed on the Earth’s surface due to accumulation and compaction of snow.

Name the two main types of glaciers.

Valley Glaciers → Confined to valleys in mountains (e.g., Alpine glaciers).

Continental Glaciers → Cover large continental areas (e.g., Greenland, Antarctica).

What is the movement speed of glaciers?: Very slow — typically a few centimetres to metres per day.
What is the zone of accumulation? : The upper part of a glacier where snow accumulates and adds mass.
What is the zone of ablation? : The lower part where melting, evaporation, or calving occurs → loss of mass.

Landforms Created by Glaciers (Erosional)

Name the major landforms created by glacial erosion.

Cirques (Corries)
U-shaped valleys
Hanging valleys
Truncated spurs
Fjords

What is a cirque?: A bowl-shaped hollow at the head of a glacial valley.
What is a U-shaped valley?: A valley with a broad floor and steep walls formed by glacial erosion.
What is a hanging valley?: A tributary valley left at a higher level than the main valley after glaciation → often waterfalls form.
What are truncated spurs?: Spurs of land cut off sharply by glaciers, leaving steep cliffs.
What is a fjord?: A U-shaped glacial valley submerged by the sea, forming deep, narrow inlets with steep sides. Example: Norway, New Zealand.

Landforms Created by Glaciers (Depositional)

What are moraines?: Accumulations of glacial debris (till) deposited by glaciers.

Lateral Moraine – Along the sides of glaciers
Medial Moraine – Middle, formed by merging of lateral moraines
Terminal Moraine – At glacier’s snout (end)
Ground Moraine – Beneath the glacier

What are drumlins?: Small, elongated hills of glacial deposits shaped by moving ice.
What are eskers? : Long, winding ridges of sand and gravel deposited by meltwater streams under glaciers.
What are outwash plains?: Plains formed by meltwater beyond the terminal moraine.

Landforms Created by the Sea & Ocean

Name the two main types of coastal landforms.

Erosional Landforms (formed by wave action eroding coasts)

Depositional Landforms (formed by accumulation of sediments)

What are the main erosional coastal landforms?

Cliffs
Caves
Arches
Stacks
Wave-cut platforms

What are the main depositional coastal landforms?

Beaches
Spits
Bars
Lagoons
Tombolos

What is a spit: An extended stretch of sand or gravel projecting from the coast into the sea, formed by longshore drift.
What is a bar? : A ridge of sand formed across the mouth of a river or bay, often creating lagoons.
What is a lagoon?: A shallow body of water separated from the sea by a bar or spit. Example: Chilika Lake (India), Caspian Lagoon.

Miscellaneous

Greenland & Antarctica → Continental glaciers.
Valley glaciers → Found in mountain regions like the Alps, Himalayas.
Fjord → Submerged glacial valley (Norway).
Moraines → Glacial deposits.
Eskers & Drumlins → Glacial depositional landforms.
Wave-cut platform → Flat area at the base of cliffs formed by wave erosion.
Spit, bar, lagoon → Coastal depositional features.

Glacial Landforms

What are Continental Glaciers also called: Ice Sheets.
What are Valley Glaciers also called?: Alpine Glaciers.
Where does the ice of Continental Glaciers accumulate?: Over very large areas, e.g., Antarctica and Greenland.
Which glaciers move outward from the center?: Continental Glaciers.
Which glaciers move down from the mountain valleys?: Valley (Alpine) Glaciers.
Name the landforms created by glacial erosion.: Cirque, U-shaped valley, Hanging valley, Fjord, Horn, Arêtes.
What is a Cirque?: A deep, arm-chair shaped hollow formed at the head of a glacier.
What is a U-shaped valley?: A valley with steep sides and flat floor formed by glacial erosion.
What is a Hanging Valley?: A smaller tributary valley hanging above the main valley floor.
What is a Fjord?: A U-shaped valley submerged by the sea (common in Norway).
What is a Horn?: A sharp pointed peak formed by erosion of cirques from several sides.
What is an Arête?: A knife-edged ridge formed between two cirques.

Marine Landforms (Erosional)

Which processes are responsible for coastal landform formation?: Erosion, transportation, and deposition by sea waves.
Name some marine erosional landforms.: Cliffs, wave-cut platforms, sea caves, sea arches, stacks, stumps.
What is a Sea Cliff?: A steep rock face along the coast formed by wave erosion.
What is a Wave-cut Platform?: A flat platform at the base of a cliff formed by wave erosion.
How are Sea Caves formed?: By wave action on weak parts of the cliff.
What happens when two caves meet?: A Sea Arch is formed.
What happens when the roof of a sea arch collapses?: A Sea Stack is formed.
What is a Stump?: A remnant of a stack after further erosion.

Marine Depositional Landforms

What causes the formation of marine depositional landforms?: Deposition of sediments by sea waves and currents along the coast.
What is a Beach?: An accumulation of sand, shingle, or pebbles deposited by waves along the shore.
What is a Spit?: A narrow tongue-shaped ridge of sand or shingle projecting into the sea.
What is a Bar?: A ridge of sand or shingle formed parallel to the coast, sometimes linking two headlands.
What is a Lagoon?: A shallow stretch of water separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
What is a Tombolo?: A bar which connects the mainland with an island.
What is a Hook: A spit that has a curved end due to wave refraction or change in current direction.
What is a Cuspate Foreland?: A triangular-shaped deposition formed by the meeting of two longshore currents.
What is a Sand Dune on the coast?: A wind-blown accumulation of sand along the coast behind beaches.
What is an Estuary?: A tide-dominated mouth of a river where freshwater meets seawater.
What is a Delta?: A depositional landform formed when a river drops sediments at its mouth, building land into the sea.
Where are deltas usually formed?: In low-tide regions with gentle slopes and abundant sediment supply.

Erosional Landforms = “C-Caves, A-Arch, S-Stack, S-Stump, C-Cliff, P-Platform”

Depositional Landforms = Beach, Spit, Bar, Lagoon, Tombolo, Hook, Cuspate foreland, Dunes, Estuary, Delta

Geography – Landforms and Erosion

What is erosion?: Erosion is the wearing away of the earth’s surface by agents like running water, wind, and glaciers.
What is deposition?: Deposition is the process by which eroded material is laid down or accumulated by agents of erosion.
What are landforms?:Landforms are natural features of the earth’s surface formed by erosion and deposition.
Name the agents of erosion and deposition.: The main agents are running water, wind, glacier, and sea waves.

Work of River (Fluvial Landforms)

What is a river valley? : A river valley is a low area between hills or mountains formed by river erosion.
What is a waterfall? : A waterfall is a sudden fall of river water over a steep slope.
What is a delta? :A delta is a triangular deposit of silt and sand formed where a river meets the sea.
What is a floodplain?: A floodplain is a flat area on both sides of a river formed by the deposition of fine sediments during floods.
What is a meander?: A meander is a large bend or loop in the course of a river.
What are oxbow lakes?: Oxbow lakes are U-shaped lakes formed when a meander gets cut off from the main river.

Work of Sea Waves (Coastal Landforms)

What are sea caves?: Sea caves are hollow formations in coastal cliffs formed by wave erosion.
What are sea arches?: Sea arches are natural rock bridges formed when sea caves on opposite sides of a headland join.
What are stacks?: Stacks are vertical columns of rock left isolated in the sea after the collapse of an arch.
What are beaches?: Beaches are gently sloping stretches of sand formed by the deposition of sediments by sea waves.

Work of Wind (Aeolian Landforms)

What is a sand dune?: A sand dune is a hill of sand built up by the action of wind in deserts.
What are loess deposits?: Loess is fine dust or silt carried by the wind and deposited over large areas.
Name two landforms formed by wind erosion.: Mushroom rocks and sand dunes.

Work of Glacier (Glacial Landforms)

What is a glacier?: A glacier is a mass of ice that moves slowly over land.
What is a moraine?:Moraine is the accumulation of rock debris carried and deposited by a glacier.
What is a cirque?: A cirque is a bowl-shaped hollow formed at the head of a glacier.

Landforms & Agents of Erosion and Deposition

What is the process of wearing away the earth’s surface called?: Erosion
Which process involves laying down of eroded materials?: Deposition
What are landforms?: Natural features formed on the earth’s surface by erosion and deposition.
Name the major agents of erosion and deposition.: River, Wind, Glacier, and Sea waves
Which agent of erosion forms V-shaped valleys?: River
Which agent of erosion forms U-shaped valleys?: Glacier
Which agent forms mushroom rocks?: Wind
What is the main agent of erosion in coastal areas?: Sea waves

Fluvial Landforms (Work of River)

What is a river valley?: A low area between hills formed by river erosion.
What is a waterfall?: A sudden fall of river water from a great height over a steep slope.
What is a meander?: A large bend or loop in the course of a river.
What is an oxbow lake?: A U-shaped lake formed when a meander is cut off from the main river.
What is a floodplain?: A flat area on both sides of a river formed by fine deposits during floods.
What is a delta?: A triangular deposit formed where a river meets the sea.
Which Indian river forms the world’s largest delta?: Ganga-Brahmaputra River
What is the name of the world’s largest delta?: Sunderban Delta
What type of landform is formed by river deposition at the mouth?: Delta

Coastal Landforms (Work of Sea Waves)

What are sea caves?: Hollow formations in coastal cliffs caused by wave erosion.
What are sea arches?: Natural rock bridges formed when two caves on opposite sides meet.
What are stacks?: Vertical rock pillars left after the collapse of an arch.
What is a beach?: A gently sloping area formed by the deposition of sand by waves.
What is a sand bar?: A ridge of sand formed parallel to the coast by wave deposition.
What are lagoons?: Shallow water bodies separated from the sea by sand bars.

Aeolian Landforms (Work of Wind)

What is a sand dune?: A hill of sand built up by the action of wind.
What is loess?: Fine dust or silt carried and deposited by wind.
What are mushroom rocks?: Wind-eroded rocks with narrow bases and wider tops.
In which region are mushroom rocks common?: Deserts
What is deflation?: Removal of loose particles by wind.
What is abrasion?: Scraping of rock surfaces by wind-blown sand.

Glacial Landforms (Work of Glacier)

What is a glacier?: A large mass of moving ice.
What is a cirque?: A bowl-shaped hollow formed at the head of a glacier.
What is a moraine?: Material deposited by a glacier.
What is a glacier valley called?: U-shaped valley
What are drumlins?: Oval hills formed by glacial deposits.

India – Size and Location

Between which latitudes does India lie?: 8°4'N and 37°6'N
Between which longitudes does India lie?: 68°7'E and 97°25'E
What is the total geographical area of India?: 3.28 million sq km
What is the total length of India’s coastline?: 7,516.6 km
What is the Standard Meridian of India?: 82°30′ E
Which place does the Standard Meridian of India pass through?: Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh)
What is the basis of Indian Standard Time (IST)?: 82°30′ E longitude
How many hours ahead of GMT is IST?: 5 hours 30 minutes ahead
Which ocean lies to the south of India?: Indian Ocean
Which two countries share the longest land border with India?: Bangladesh and China
Which two island groups form part of India?: Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands

Additional Facts

Which country lies to the northwest of India?: Pakistan
Which country lies to the north of India?: China
Which country lies to the east of India?: Myanmar
What is the southernmost point of India called?: Indira Point
In which island group is Indira Point located?: Nicobar Islands
What separates India and Sri Lanka?: Palk Strait
What is the latitudinal extent of mainland India?: About 30°
What is the time difference between the eastern and western extremities of India?: 2 hours

India and Its Neighbours

How many countries share land boundaries with India?: Seven
Name the countries sharing boundaries with India.: Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar
Which country is India’s southern neighbour across the sea?: Sri Lanka
What separates India and Sri Lanka?: Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar
Which countries form the Indian subcontinent?: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Maldives, and Sri Lanka

Physical Divisions of India

How many major physical divisions does India have?: Six

Name the six major physical divisions of India.

The Northern Mountains

The Northern Plains

The Peninsular Plateau

The Indian Desert

The Coastal Plains

The Islands

The Northern Mountains (Himalayas)

What is the northernmost physical division of India?: The Northern Mountains (Himalayas)
The Himalayas form a natural boundary between which two regions?: The Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau
What is the length of the Himalayas from west to east?: About 2,400 km
What is the average width of the Himalayas?: 150–400 km

Which are the three parallel ranges of the Himalayas?

Himadri (Greater Himalayas)

Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)

Shiwalik (Outer Himalayas)

Himadri (Greater Himalayas)

What is the average height of the Himadri range?: About 6,000 metres
Name the highest peak of the Himalayas.: Mount Everest (8,848 m)
Where is Mount Everest located?: On the Nepal–Tibet border
Which is the highest peak in India?: Kanchenjunga (8,586 m)
In which state is Kanchenjunga located?: Sikkim
What are the main features of the Himadri range?: Permanently snow-covered, contains highest peaks, origin of major glaciers.

Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)

What is the average height of the Himachal range?: Between 3,700 and 4,500 metres
Name some famous hill stations in the Himachal range.: Shimla, Nainital, Mussoorie, Darjeeling
What are “Valleys” in the Lesser Himalayas known for?: Fertile lands and human settlements
Name two famous valleys of the Lesser Himalayas.: Kashmir Valley and Kangra Valley

Shiwalik Range (Outer Himalayas)

What is the average height of the Shiwalik range?: 900–1,100 metres
What are the “Duns”?: Flat valleys found between the Himachal and Shiwalik ranges.
Name one famous Dun.: Dehradun

Other Mountain Systems

What lies north of the Himadri range?: Trans-Himalayas
What are the three ranges of the Trans-Himalayas?: Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar
Name the highest peak of the Karakoram range.: K2 (Godwin Austen Peak)
What is the height of K2?: 8,611 metres
In which region is the Karakoram range located?: Jammu & Kashmir (Gilgit–Baltistan region)
What is the average height of the Ladakh range?: Around 5,500 metres
Between which two ranges does the Zaskar range lie?: Between the Ladakh and Pir Panjal ranges

Important Peaks & Passes

Name a famous pass connecting India and Tibet.: Nathu La Pass (Sikkim)
Which pass connects Manali and Leh?: Rohtang Pass
Which pass connects Srinagar and Leh?: Zoji La Pass
Which pass lies between India and China in Uttarakhand?: Lipulekh Pass
What is the importance of mountain passes?: They provide routes through high mountain barriers for trade and transport.

Other Important Facts

Which plateau lies south of the Northern Plains?: Peninsular Plateau
What separates the Himalayas and the Peninsular Plateau?: Northern Plains
What is the geological age of the Himalayas?: Young Fold Mountains (Tertiary period)
What is the geological age of the Peninsular Plateau?: Old landmass (Pre-Cambrian period)

The Northern Plains

Between which two physical divisions do the Northern Plains lie?: Between the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsular Plateau in the south.
How were the Northern Plains formed?: By the alluvial deposits brought by rivers – Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
What type of soil is found in the Northern Plains?: Alluvial soil.
Why are the Northern Plains densely populated?: Due to fertile soil, flat surface, and ample water supply.
What is the total area of the Northern Plains?: About 7 lakh sq km.
What is the average elevation of the Northern Plains?: 150–200 metres above sea level.
Into how many regions are the Northern Plains divided?: Three — Western, Central, and Eastern Plains.
Which river forms the Western Plains?: Indus River and its tributaries.
Which river forms the Central Plains?: Ganga River.
Which river forms the Eastern Plains?: Brahmaputra River.

The Peninsular Plateau

Which is the oldest landmass of India?: Peninsular Plateau.
What is the average height of the Peninsular Plateau?: 600–900 metres above sea level.
What is the shape of the Peninsular Plateau?: Triangular.
Which part of India does the Peninsular Plateau cover?: The southern part of India.
What separates the Peninsular Plateau from the Northern Plains?: Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
Name the two broad divisions of the Peninsular Plateau.: Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau.

Central Highlands

Between which ranges are the Central Highlands located?: Between the Aravalli and the Vindhya ranges.
Name the major plateaus forming part of the Central Highlands.: Malwa Plateau, Bundelkhand, and Baghelkhand Plateaus.
Which river drains the Central Highlands?: Chambal, Betwa, and Ken Rivers (tributaries of Yamuna).

Deccan Plateau

Which is the largest part of the Peninsular Plateau?: Deccan Plateau.
Where is the Deccan Plateau located?: South of the Narmada River.
Which mountain ranges bound the Deccan Plateau?: Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
What is the average height of the Deccan Plateau?: 600–900 metres.
In which direction does the Deccan Plateau slope?: From west to east.
What is the highest peak of the Peninsular Plateau?: Anai Mudi (2,695 m).
In which state is Anai Mudi located?: Kerala.
What is the second-highest peak of the Peninsular Plateau?: Doda Betta (2,637 m) in Tamil Nadu.
Name the important rivers originating from the Deccan Plateau.: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Mahanadi.

Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

What is the average height of the Western Ghats: About 900–1,600 metres.
What is the average height of the Eastern Ghats?: About 600 metres.
Which ghats are continuous – Western Ghats.
Which ghats are dissected by rivers?: Eastern Ghats.
Which range forms the watershed of Peninsular rivers?: Western Ghats.
Which plateau lies between the Western and Eastern Ghats?: Deccan Plateau.
Which side receives more rainfall – Western Ghats.

The Indian Desert (Thar Desert)

Where is the Thar Desert located?: In the north-western part of India (mainly in Rajasthan).
What type of climate does the Thar Desert have?: Arid climate with low rainfall.
What is the average annual rainfall in the Thar Desert?: Less than 150 mm.
Which river drains the Thar Desert?: Luni River.
What type of soil is found in the Thar Desert?: Sandy soil.
What is the main occupation of people in the Thar Desert?: Animal rearing.

The Coastal Plains

Name the two coastal plains of India.: Western Coastal Plain and Eastern Coastal Plain.
Between which areas does the Western Coastal Plain lie?: Between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea.
Between which areas does the Eastern Coastal Plain lie?: Between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal.
Name the divisions of the Western Coastal Plain.: Konkan Coast (north), Kannad Coast (middle), Malabar Coast (south).
Name the divisions of the Eastern Coastal Plain.: Northern Circars and Coromandel Coast.
Which coastal plain is broader?: Eastern Coastal Plain.
Which coastal plain is narrow and steep?: Western Coastal Plain.
Name the largest delta of India found on the east coast.: Sunderban Delta (formed by Ganga and Brahmaputra).

The Island Groups

How many island groups belong to India?: Two – Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands.
Where are the Andaman & Nicobar Islands located?: In the Bay of Bengal.
Where are the Lakshadweep Islands located?: In the Arabian Sea.
How many islands are there in the Lakshadweep group?: 36 islands.
What is the capital of Lakshadweep?: Kavaratti.
What is the capital of Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Port Blair.
Which island group is of coral origin?: Lakshadweep Islands.
Which island group has volcanic origin?: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Barren Island).
Name the only active volcano in India.: Barren Island volcano (Andaman Sea).

How many major soil types are found in India? : India has 8 major soil types according to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

What is meant by Zonal and Azonal soils?

Zonal soils: Well-developed soils influenced mainly by climate (e.g., Alluvial, Red, Laterite, Black soils).
Azonal soils: Immature soils not influenced much by climate (e.g., Mountain soil, Desert soil).

Alluvial Soil

Where is Alluvial soil found in India?: Found in Indo-Gangetic plains, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
What are the two types of Alluvial soils?- Khadar (New alluvium) – Fertile, rich in potash and lime., Bhangar (Old alluvium) – Contains kankar (calcareous nodules).
What are the main crops grown in Alluvial soil? - Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Maize, Pulses.
Which minerals are rich in Alluvial soil? - Potash, Lime, and Phosphoric acid (Deficient in nitrogen and humus).

Black Soil (Regur or Cotton Soil)

How is Black soil formed? - Formed from weathering of basaltic rocks of the Deccan Plateau.
Where is Black soil found? - Found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

What is the main characteristic of Black soil?

Clayey texture, rich in iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum.
High moisture retention capacity.
Cracks during dry season.

Which crop is best suited for Black soil?

Cotton (hence called “Regur soil”).
Also supports wheat, jowar, sugarcane.

Red Soil

Why does Red soil appear red? - Due to ferric oxide content.
Where is Red soil found? - Found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh.

What are its characteristics?

Sandy to clayey texture.
Poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, humus, and lime.
Rich in iron.

What crops are grown in Red soil? - Rice, Millets, Pulses, Groundnut, Cotton.

Laterite Soil

How is Laterite soil formed? - Formed by leaching in high rainfall areas due to intense weathering.
Where is Laterite soil found?- Found in Western Ghats, Odisha, Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka.

What are the features of Laterite soil?

Poor in nitrogen, phosphate, lime, potash.
Rich in iron and aluminum oxides.
Becomes hard like brick on drying.

What crops grow well in Laterite soil? - Tea, Coffee, Cashew nuts (especially in hilly regions).

Mountain Soil

Where is Mountain soil found? - Found in Himalayan regions – Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh.

What are its features?

Immature, thin, and weakly developed.
Rich in humus but poor in potash and lime.

What crops are grown in Mountain soil? - Tea, Coffee, Apple, Spices.

Arid (Desert) Soil

Where is Arid soil found? - Found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab.

What are the main features?

Sandy, saline, and low in humus.
Contains high soluble salts.
Lacks moisture but can be fertile with irrigation (e.g., Indira Gandhi Canal).

Major crops? - Millets (Bajra), Barley, Jowar.

Peaty and Marshy Soil

What are Peaty and Marshy soils? - Formed in areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity where organic matter accumulates.
Where found? - Found in Kottayam and Alappuzha (Kerala), Sunderbans (West Bengal).
Features? - Rich in organic matter and acidic in nature.

Forest Soil

Where found? - Found in Himalayan and Western Ghats regions.
Features? - Rich in humus, varies with altitude and vegetation.

General Soil Facts for Exams

Most fertile soil → Alluvial soil
Least fertile soil → Arid (Desert) soil
Soil suitable for cotton → Black soil
Soil rich in iron → Red soil
Soil formed by leaching → Laterite soil
Soil found in deltas → Alluvial soil
Soil with high clay content → Black soil

General Soil Facts

Total major soil types in India: 8
Scientist who classified Indian soils: ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research)
Most fertile soil in India: Alluvial soil
Least fertile soil: Arid/Desert soil
Soil suitable for cotton cultivation: Black soil (Regur)
Soil rich in iron oxide: Red soil
Soil formed due to leaching: Laterite soil
Soil of Deccan Plateau: Black soil
Soil covering largest area in India: Alluvial soil
Soil found in deltas: Alluvial soil
Soil with high clay content: Black soil
Soil having poor humus content: Desert soil
Soil rich in organic matter: Peaty & Marshy soil
Soil found in hilly regions: Mountain soil
Soil that becomes hard like brick on drying: Laterite soil
Soil suitable for tea & coffee Laterite / Mountain soil
Soil formed by rivers Alluvial
Soil poor in humus Desert soil
Soil of Deccan plateau Black soil
Soil of Indo-Gangetic plains Alluvial soil
Brick-making soil Laterite soil
Saline soil found in Rajasthan, Gujarat
Peaty soil found in Kerala, Sunderbans
Soil with highest nitrogen Peaty & Marshy
Soil with lowest nitrogen Red soil
Soil most affected by leaching - Laterite
Soil formed by volcanic rock Black soil
Soil with kankar nodules - Bhangar (old alluvium)
Soil that cracks on drying - Black soil
Soil deficient in phosphate - Laterite soil
Largest area: Alluvial soil (~43%)
Second largest: Black soil
Most productive: Alluvial soil
Found in peninsular plateau: Red & Black soils
Found in coastal high rainfall regions: Laterite soil

Importance of Agriculture in India

Agriculture is the main occupation of Indian people.
It provides livelihood to about 58% of the population.
It contributes about 18% to India’s GDP.
It supplies raw materials to industries (like jute, cotton, sugar, etc.).
Provides employment, food, and foreign exchange.
Known as the backbone of the Indian economy.

Types of Agriculture in India

(A) Primitive Subsistence Farming

Practised on small patches of land using primitive tools.
Family or community labour used.
Depends on rainfall and natural fertility.
Example: Jhumming (shifting cultivation).
Found in North-Eastern states, Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh.

Other names of shifting cultivation

Jhum (NE India)

Bewar (MP)

Podu (Andhra Pradesh)

Penda (Bastar, Chhattisgarh)

Dahiya (Rajasthan)

Pama Dabi (Odisha)

(B) Intensive Subsistence Farming

Common in areas of high population pressure on land.
Small holdings, use of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, irrigation, fertilizers.
Main crops: Rice, wheat, pulses, maize, vegetables.
Found in Indo-Gangetic plains and Southern states.

(C) Commercial Farming

Objective: Profit-oriented large-scale farming.
Use of modern tools, fertilizers, irrigation, HYV seeds.
Crops grown: Sugarcane, cotton, jute, tea, coffee, rubber, etc.
Practised in plains and plantation regions.

(D) Plantation Farming

Introduced by Britishers in India.
Single crop grown on large area using capital, labour, and management.
Major crops: Tea, coffee, rubber, banana, spices.
Found in Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
Output used as raw material for industries and export.

Major Crops of India

(a) Rice

Staple food crop of India.
Requires high temperature, high humidity, and rainfall (100–200 cm).
Grown in: Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, UP.
Largest producer: West Bengal
Highest productivity: Punjab and Haryana (due to irrigation).

Two main seasons:

Kharif (June–October)
Rabi (less common) in southern India.

(b) Wheat

Rabi crop, needs cool climate and moderate rainfall.
Grown in northern and north-western India – Punjab, Haryana, UP, MP, Rajasthan, Bihar.
India ranks 2nd in world production after China.
Two important varieties: Triticum aestivum (common wheat), Triticum durum (hard wheat).

(c) Maize

Kharif crop, grown in moderate temperature (21°C–27°C).
Requires well-drained fertile soil.
Grown in Karnataka, MP, UP, Bihar, Telangana.
Used as food, fodder, and industrial raw material.

(d) Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi)

Known as coarse grains.
Require low rainfall (50–100 cm) and high temperature.
Grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, MP, Telangana.
Ragi is rich in iron, calcium, roughage.
India is world’s largest producer of millets.

(e) Cotton

Kharif crop, needs high temperature (21–30°C), 200 frost-free days, and black soil.
Grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab.
India is the 2nd largest producer in the world (after China).
Short-staple cotton: Indian type
Long-staple cotton: Egyptian type (superior quality).

(f) Jute

Commercial fibre crop, also known as “Golden fibre.”
Requires hot and humid climate, 200 cm rainfall, loamy alluvial soil.
Grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya.
Used in making gunny bags, ropes, carpets, and mats.
India is the largest producer of jute, followed by Bangladesh.

(g) Tea

Plantation crop, introduced by Britishers.
Requires humid climate, rainfall (150–250 cm), well-drained acidic soil, and slopes for drainage.
Grown in Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
India is the 2nd largest producer after China.
Major export commodity.

(h) Coffee

Commercial plantation crop.
Introduced from Arabia; first cultivated in Baba Budan Hills, Karnataka.
Requires tropical climate (15–28°C) and rainfall 150–250 cm.
Grown in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
India is famous for Arabica and Robusta varieties.

(i) Rubber

Equatorial crop, needs hot & humid climate, temperature above 25°C, rainfall >200 cm.
Grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, NE states.
India is 6th largest producer in the world.
Used in tyres, footwear, industrial goods.

(j) Sugarcane

Tropical crop, requires temperature 21–27°C, rainfall 75–100 cm.
Grown in UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Punjab.
India is the 2nd largest producer after Brazil.
Raw material for sugar, gur (jaggery), and ethanol.

Cropping Seasons in India

Season Sowing - Time Harvest - Time Major Crops

Kharif - June–July Oct–Nov - Rice, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Millets, Groundnut
Rabi - Oct–Dec March–April - Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Gram, Peas
Zaid - Summer (March–June) Before monsoon - Watermelon, Cucumber, Muskmelon, Vegetables

One-Liner / Quick Facts

India ranks 2nd in farm output in the world.
Major food grains: Rice, Wheat, Millets, Pulses.
India ranks 1st in pulses and jute production.
Mixed farming – growing crops + rearing animals.
Rabi crops need irrigation as grown in dry season.
Kharif crops depend on southwest monsoon.
Plantation farming is capital and labour intensive.
Tea → introduced by Britishers in Assam.
Coffee → introduced from Arabia (Baba Budan Hills).
Cash crops = Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tea, Coffee, Rubber.
Food crops = Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets, Pulses.
India’s largest rice producing state: West Bengal.
India’s largest wheat producing state: Uttar Pradesh.
Largest cotton producing state: Gujarat.
Largest sugarcane producing state: Uttar Pradesh.
Largest tea producing state: Assam.
Largest coffee producing state: Karnataka.
Largest rubber producing state: Kerala.
Largest jute producing state: West Bengal.

Types of Agriculture in India

Primitive Subsistence Farming

Primitive farming uses primitive tools like hoe, dao, and digging sticks.
It depends on monsoon rains and natural fertility of soil.
It is labour-intensive and low-yield farming.
Practised in small patches by tribal communities.
Known as slash and burn or shifting cultivation.
Farmers clear a patch of forest, burn vegetation, and grow crops.
Land is abandoned after fertility decreases.
Common in North-Eastern states, parts of Odisha, Jharkhand, MP, Chhattisgarh.

Local names of shifting cultivation

Jhum – NE India

Bewar – MP

Podu – Andhra Pradesh

Dahiya – Rajasthan

Pama Dabi – Odisha

Penda – Bastar (Chhattisgarh)

Intensive Subsistence Farming

Practised in densely populated regions.
Farmers cultivate small plots of land intensively.
Uses HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation.
Objective – maximum output per hectare.
Common in Indo-Gangetic Plains and southern India.
Crops: Rice, wheat, pulses, maize, vegetables.
Labour-intensive due to small holdings.
Dependent on monsoon or irrigation.

Commercial Farming

Aim: Profit-oriented production.
Uses modern tools, fertilizers, and irrigation.
Crops grown on large scale.
Crops: Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tea, coffee, rubber, etc.
Requires capital investment and machinery.
Found in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Plantation Farming

Introduced by Britishers in India.
Single crop grown on large estates.
Involves capital, labour, and scientific management.
Major plantation crops: Tea, coffee, rubber, banana, spices.
Practised in Assam, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
Plantation crops provide foreign exchange through export.
Labourers often live on the estate itself.

Cropping Seasons in India

Kharif crops: sown before monsoon (June–July), harvested in Oct–Nov.
Rabi crops: sown in winter (Oct–Dec), harvested in March–April.
Zaid crops: grown between Rabi and Kharif (March–June).
Kharif crops: rice, maize, jute, cotton, millets, groundnut.
Rabi crops: wheat, barley, mustard, gram, peas.
Zaid crops: watermelon, cucumber, muskmelon, vegetables.

Major Crops and Conditions

Rice

Main food crop of India.
Requires high temperature (25°C+) and high rainfall (100–200 cm).
Grown in Assam, WB, Bihar, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, AP, Punjab, Haryana.
India is 2nd largest producer after China.
Needs loamy alluvial soil.
West Bengal – largest producer.
Punjab & Haryana – high productivity due to irrigation.

Wheat

Rabi crop; needs cool climate and moderate rainfall (50–100 cm).
Grown in Punjab, Haryana, UP, MP, Rajasthan, Bihar.
India ranks 2nd in world wheat production.
Requires well-drained fertile soil.
Two varieties: Triticum aestivum (common), Triticum durum (hard).
UP – largest wheat-producing state.

Maize

Kharif crop; requires 21–27°C, moderate rainfall.
Grown in Karnataka, MP, UP, Bihar, Telangana.
Used as food, fodder, and industrial raw material.

Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi)

Also called coarse grains.
Need high temperature and low rainfall (50–100 cm).
Grow in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, MP.
Ragi – rich in iron, calcium, roughage.
India is the largest producer of millets in the world.
Bajra grows best in arid areas (Rajasthan, Gujarat).

Cotton

Kharif crop; needs high temperature, 200 frost-free days, and black soil.
Known as King of Fibre Crops.
Grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
India is the 2nd largest cotton producer (after China).
Short-staple cotton: Indian type.
Long-staple cotton: Egyptian type.
Used in textile industry.

Jute

Known as Golden Fibre.
Requires hot and humid climate, 200 cm rainfall.
Grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya.
Soil: Loamy alluvial soil in deltaic regions.
Used for gunny bags, ropes, carpets, mats.
India is 1st in production, followed by Bangladesh

Tea

Plantation crop; requires humid climate and 150–250 cm rainfall.
Needs acidic soil on slopes for drainage.
Grown in Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
Introduced by Britishers in India.
India ranks 2nd after China in tea production.

Coffee

Introduced from Arabia; first planted in Baba Budan Hills (Karnataka).
Requires hot and humid climate, 150–250 cm rainfall.
Grown in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
India produces Arabica and Robusta varieties.
Mostly exported to Europe.

Rubber

Plantation crop of equatorial region.
Needs 25°C+ temperature and 200 cm rainfall.
Grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, NE India.
Used in tyres, footwear, and industries.
India ranks 6th in world production.

Sugarcane

Tropical crop; requires 21–27°C and 75–100 cm rainfall.
Grown in UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN, Punjab, Bihar.
India is 2nd largest producer after Brazil.
Used in sugar, gur (jaggery), molasses, and ethanol.

Miscellaneous

Largest rice-producing state: West Bengal.
Largest wheat-producing state: Uttar Pradesh.
Largest cotton-producing state: Gujarat.
Largest sugarcane-producing state: Uttar Pradesh.
Largest tea-producing state: Assam.
Largest coffee-producing state: Karnataka.
Largest jute-producing state: West Bengal.
Largest rubber-producing state: Kerala.
Plantation farming introduced by: Britishers.
India’s first coffee plantation: Baba Budan Hills, Karnataka.
Tea’s native origin: Assam.
Rubber’s native region: Equatorial Africa.
Jute grows well in: River deltas.

Drilling is used to extract liquid minerals like petroleum and natural gas.
Quarrying is used for building stones, limestone, marble, etc.
Ferrous minerals contain iron (e.g. iron ore, manganese, chromite).
Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron (e.g. copper, bauxite, lead, zinc).
India is rich in iron ore.
Major iron ore producing states – Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra.
Odisha is the largest producer of iron ore in India.
Famous iron ore mines – Mayurbhanj (Odisha), Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt (Chhattisgarh-MP), Bellary (Karnataka), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra).
Important iron ore types – Hematite (red ore) and Magnetite (black ore).
Hematite is the most important industrial iron ore in India.
Manganese is used in steel making and dry batteries.
Major manganese producing states – Odisha, MP, Maharashtra, Karnataka.
Odisha – largest producer of manganese.
Chromite is used in stainless steel and alloys.
Major chromite mines – Sukinda (Odisha).
Kolar Gold Field (Karnataka) – famous for gold mining (now closed).
Hutti Gold Mine (Karnataka) – only active gold mine in India

Bauxite is the ore of aluminium.
Bauxite is used in aeroplanes, electrical and packaging industries.
Major bauxite producing states – Odisha, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
Odisha – largest producer of bauxite.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and used in electrical equipment.
Major copper producing areas – Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (MP), Khetri (Rajasthan).
Khetri Mines – known as the Copper Belt of India.
Zinc and Lead are found in Zawar Mines (Rajasthan).
Mica is used in electrical and electronic industries.
India is the largest producer of mica in the world.
Major mica producing states – Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh.
Limestone is used in cement industry.
Mica belt – lies in Gaya-Hazaribagh (Jharkhand-Bihar) region.
Conventional sources: coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower.
Non-conventional sources: solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas.

Major coal types – Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite, Peat.
Anthracite – best quality, high carbon, found in Jammu & Kashmir.
Bituminous – most used, found in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal.
Lignite (brown coal) – found in Tamil Nadu (Neyveli).
Jharkhand – largest coal-producing state of India.
Major coalfields – Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Korba, Singrauli, Talcher.
Jharia (Jharkhand) – famous for high-quality coking coal.
Coal India Ltd (CIL) – world’s largest coal producing company.
Headquarters of Coal India Ltd – Kolkata.

Petroleum is known as “liquid gold”.
India’s first oil field – Digboi (Assam).
Major oil fields – Digboi, Naharkatia, Moran (Assam); Bombay High (offshore, Maharashtra); Ankleshwar, Kalol (Gujarat).
Bombay High – largest petroleum producing region in India.
Gujarat and Assam – leading petroleum producing states.
Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits.
Major gas fields – Bombay High, Krishna-Godavari Basin, Cambay, Digboi.

ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation) – major public sector company for exploration.

ONGC HQ: New Delhi.

Oil India Limited (OIL) – another national oil company.

OIL HQ: Duliajan, Assam.

Petroleum refineries – located at Mathura, Barauni, Haldia, Jamnagar, Mumbai, Digboi, Panipat.
Jamnagar Refinery (Gujarat) – largest oil refinery in India.
Uranium and Thorium are used as nuclear fuels.
Uranium deposits found in Jharkhand (Jaduguda, Singhbhum).
Thorium is found in monazite sands of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) – manages atomic power generation.

Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.
Examples – Mica, Limestone, Gypsum, Phosphate, Salt.
Gypsum is used in cement and fertilizer industries.
Rock salt found in Himalayan foothills (Mandi, Himachal Pradesh).
Phosphate rock – used for chemical fertilizers.
Limestone – essential raw material for cement industry.
Major limestone producing states – Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu.

Important Organizations

GSI (Geological Survey of India) – responsible for mineral exploration. GSI HQ: Kolkata.
NMDC (National Mineral Development Corporation) – deals with iron ore, etc. NMDC HQ: Hyderabad.
Coal India Ltd HQ: Kolkata.
Oil India Ltd HQ: Duliajan, Assam.
ONGC HQ: New Delhi.

Miscellaneous Important Facts

India ranks 4th in iron ore production in the world.
India ranks 2nd in coal production after China.
India is self-sufficient in coal but deficient in petroleum.
Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) – known for iron ore.
Singhbhum (Jharkhand) – rich in iron and copper.
Korba (Chhattisgarh) – known for coal.
Zawar (Rajasthan) – for lead and zinc.
Jaduguda (Jharkhand) – for uranium.
Sukinda (Odisha) – for chromite.
Hutti (Karnataka) – for gold.
Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) – for lignite.
Digboi (Assam) – for petroleum.
Kerala coast – for thorium.

Iron and Steel Industry in India

Oldest iron and steel industry in India – TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel Company), Jamshedpur.
TISCO was established in – 1907.
TISCO is located at – Jamshedpur (Jharkhand).
TISCO was established by – Jamshedji Tata.
TISCO is the first iron and steel plant in India (private sector).
First public sector iron & steel plant in India – VISL (Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Plant), Bhadravati (Karnataka).
VISL was established in – 1923.
India’s first large-scale iron & steel company – Bengal Iron Works (Kulti, West Bengal).
Bengal Iron Works started production in – 1874.
After Independence, major steel plants were set up in collaboration with foreign countries.
Bhilai Steel Plant (Chhattisgarh) – set up with USSR collaboration (1959).
Rourkela Steel Plant (Odisha) – set up with Germany collaboration (1959).
Durgapur Steel Plant (West Bengal) – set up with UK collaboration (1962).
Bokaro Steel Plant (Jharkhand) – established with Soviet collaboration (1964).
Salem Steel Plant (Tamil Nadu) – known for stainless steel.
Visakhapatnam Steel Plant (Andhra Pradesh) – India’s first shore-based steel plant (started 1991).
India’s largest integrated steel plant – Bhilai Steel Plant.
Largest public sector steel company – SAIL (Steel Authority of India Ltd.).
SAIL Headquarters – New Delhi.
Private sector steel giants – Tata Steel, Jindal Steel, Essar Steel, JSW Steel.
India ranks second in crude steel production (after China).
Iron ore, coal, limestone, and manganese are the main raw materials for iron and steel industry.
Rourkela Steel Plant – located on the bank of River Brahmani.
Bokaro Steel Plant – located near Damodar River.
India became self-sufficient in steel production after the 8th Five-Year Plan.
Main centers of steel production – Jamshedpur, Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam.

Coal Production in India

Coal is the main source of energy in India.
India ranks 2nd in the world in coal production (after China).
Major coal producing states – Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh.
Jharkhand – largest coal producing state in India.
Major coalfields – Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Korba, Talcher, Singrauli.
Jharia coalfield (Jharkhand) – known for coking coal.
Raniganj (West Bengal) – oldest coalfield in India.
Korba (Chhattisgarh) – major thermal power producing area.
Talcher (Odisha) – major coal mining region in eastern India.
Coal India Limited (CIL) – largest coal producing company.
CIL Headquarters – Kolkata.
India’s coal reserves are mainly found in Gondwana rocks.
Godavari Valley (Andhra Pradesh) – known for lignite coal.
Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) – famous for lignite (brown coal)

Minerals and Their Major Producing States

Zinc – Rajasthan (Zawar mines).
Lead – Found with zinc in Zawar mines (Rajasthan).
Mica – Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar.

India is the largest producer of mica in the world.

Mica is used in – electrical and electronic industries.
Diamond – found in Panna (Madhya Pradesh) and Golconda (Telangana).
India was the first country to mine diamonds.
Golconda – famous historical center of diamond trade.
Uranium – found in Jaduguda (Jharkhand).
Thorium – found in Monazite sands of Kerala coast.
Bauxite – major deposits in Odisha, Jharkhand, Gujarat.
Copper – found in Khetri (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (MP).
Iron ore – mainly in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka.
Odisha – largest producer of iron ore in India.
Manganese – found in Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
Limestone – used in cement industry, found in MP, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh.

Miscellaneous Facts

Bhilai Steel Plant – produces rails for Indian Railways.
Rourkela Steel Plant – India’s first public sector steel plant.
Durgapur Steel Plant – located near Damodar River in West Bengal.
Iron and steel industry is called the “backbone of modern industry.”
SAIL – controls Bhilai, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, and Salem plants.
Iron ore + Coal + Limestone – essential raw material combination for steel plants.
India’s first sponge iron plant – located in Karnataka.
Industrial hubs for steel – Eastern India (Jharkhand–Odisha–Chhattisgarh belt) due to resource proximity.
Indian Steel Industry contributes ~2% to GDP.
“Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)” formed in – 1973.
Hindustan Steel Limited – precursor organization to SAIL.
India’s first Iron & Steel Company – Bengal Iron Works, Kulti (1874).

Iron & Steel Industry

The first Iron & Steel company in India – Bengal Iron Works (Kulti, West Bengal, 1874)
First large-scale Iron & Steel plant in India – Tata Iron & Steel Company (TISCO), Jamshedpur (1907)
TISCO was established by – Jamshedji Tata
The first public sector Iron & Steel plant – Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel Ltd, Bhadravati (Karnataka)
Bhilai Steel Plant was established in collaboration with – USSR (1959)
Durgapur Steel Plant was set up with – UK collaboration (1959)
Rourkela Steel Plant was set up with – Germany collaboration (1959)
Bokaro Steel Plant was set up with – USSR collaboration (1964)
India’s largest private sector steel company – Tata Steel
India is the second largest producer of crude steel in the world (after China).
Largest producer state of Iron ore in India – Odisha
Major Iron & Steel centres – Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Durgapur, Bokaro, Burnpur.
First Iron & Steel plant in India after Independence – Bhilai Steel Plant (1959)

Aluminium Industry

The first modern Aluminium plant was established at – Jaykaynagar (West Bengal)
Main centres of Aluminium production – Renukoot (UP), Mettur (Tamil Nadu), Hirakud (Odisha), Belgaum (Karnataka), Korba (Chhattisgarh).

Major Aluminium companies – HINDALCO, NALCO, BALCO.
HINDALCO (Hindustan Aluminium Co.) – Renukoot, Uttar Pradesh.
NALCO – Headquarters in Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
BALCO – Korba (Chhattisgarh)

India’s largest Aluminium producer – NALCO.
India’s rank in world Aluminium production – 6th.
Bauxite (raw material of Aluminium) is mainly found in – Jharkhand, Odisha, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, MP.

Jute Industry

India is the second largest producer of jute after Bangladesh.
The first Jute Mill in India – Rishra (West Bengal), 1855.
Largest centre of Jute Industry – Kolkata (West Bengal).
India’s jute mills are mainly located along – Hugli River (West Bengal).
Jute Corporation of India was established in – 1971.
Major jute-producing states – West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
India produces about 60% of the world’s jute.
India exports jute goods mainly to – UK, USA, Germany, Italy, Japan.

Cotton Textile Industry

The first modern cotton textile mill in India – Bombay (1854).
Ahmedabad is known as – “Manchester of India.”
First cotton textile mill in Ahmedabad – Calico Mills (1880).
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills.
Leading centres of Cotton Textile Industry – Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Surat, Indore, Kanpur, Chennai.
Cotton textile industry provides the largest employment in India’s industrial sector.
Cotton textile industry was developed in – 19th century.

Other Key Points

India is one of the leading producers of synthetic fibre.
Major centres of man-made fibre production – Mumbai, Surat, Vadodara, Kota.
Important textile centres in South India – Coimbatore, Madurai, Chennai.
Cotton textile exports include – Yarn, fabrics, garments, and made-ups.

Iron & Steel Industry

First Iron & Steel Company in India? - Bengal Iron Works, Kulti (West Bengal, 1874)
First large-scale Iron & Steel Plant in India? - Tata Iron & Steel Company (TISCO), Jamshedpur (1907)
Founder of TISCO? - Jamshedji Tata
First Public Sector Steel Plant in India? - Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel Ltd, Bhadravati (Karnataka)
Bhilai Steel Plant established with help of which country? - USSR (1959)
Durgapur Steel Plant established with help of which country? - UK (1959)
Rourkela Steel Plant established with help of which country? - Germany (1959)
Bokaro Steel Plant established with help of which country? - USSR (1964)
First Steel Plant after Independence? - Bhilai Steel Plant (1959)
Largest Private Steel Producer in India? - Tata Steel
India’s rank in crude steel production?- 2nd (after China)
Largest Iron Ore producing state in India? - Odisha
Major Steel Centres in India? - Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Durgapur, Bhilai, Bokaro, Burnpur

Aluminium Industry

First modern Aluminium plant in India? - Jaykaynagar (West Bengal)
HINDALCO is located at? - Renukoot (Uttar Pradesh)
NALCO headquarters is in? - Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
BALCO plant is located at? - Korba (Chhattisgarh)
India’s largest Aluminium producer? - NALCO
India’s rank in world Aluminium production? - 6th
Major Bauxite producing states? - Jharkhand, Odisha, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
Raw material of Aluminium industry? - Bauxite

Jute Industry

First Jute Mill in India? - Rishra (West Bengal, 1855)
Largest Jute Industry centre in India? - Kolkata (West Bengal)
River on which Jute Industry is mainly located? - Hugli River
When was the Jute Corporation of India established? - 1971
India’s rank in jute production? - 2nd (after Bangladesh)
Leading Jute producing states? - West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh
Percentage of world jute produced by India? - About 60%
Major Jute export destinations? - UK, USA, Germany, Italy, Japan

Cotton Textile Industry

First modern Cotton Textile Mill in India? - Bombay (1854)
First Cotton Mill in Ahmedabad? - Calico Mills (1880)
Ahmedabad is known as? - Manchester of India
State with maximum Cotton Textile Mills? - Tamil Nadu
Leading centres of Cotton Textile Industry? - Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Surat, Indore, Kanpur, Chennai
Cotton Textile Industry gives employment to? - Largest number of industrial workers in India
Cotton Textile Industry developed in which century? - 19th Century
Major Cotton Textile exports from India? - Yarn, Fabrics, Garments, Made-ups

Synthetic & Man-Made Fibre Industry

India is a leading producer of which type of fibre? - Synthetic fibre
Major Man-Made Fibre production centres? - Mumbai, Surat, Vadodara, Kota
Important Textile Centres in South India? - Coimbatore, Madurai, Chennai

Sugar Industry

India’s rank in world sugar production? - 2nd (after Brazil)
Largest producer of sugar in India? - Maharashtra
Second largest sugar-producing state? - Uttar Pradesh
Which crop is used for sugar production? - Sugarcane
First sugar mill in India was established where? - Bihar (1903)
Major sugar-producing states? - Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Bihar
Sugar industry is a type of which industry? - Agro-based industry
By-products of sugar industry? - Molasses, Bagasse, Press mud
Largest sugar-producing region of Maharashtra? - Kolhapur–Sangli belt

Paper Industry

The first paper mill in India was set up in? - Serampore (West Bengal, 1812)
India’s first modern paper mill? - Ballygunge (West Bengal)
Raw materials used in paper industry? - Bamboo, wood pulp, waste paper, grass
Leading paper-producing states? - West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala
Largest paper mill in India? - Hindustan Paper Corporation, Assam
Main centres of paper industry? - Nepanagar, Bhopal, Sirpur, Ballarpur, Nagaon, Dandeli
Major problem of paper industry in India? - Shortage of raw material and high cost

Cement Industry

First cement factory in India? - Chennai (1904)
First large-scale cement factory? - Katni (Madhya Pradesh, 1915)
Which state is the largest producer of cement in India? - Andhra Pradesh
Second largest cement-producing state? - Rajasthan
Major cement centres in India? - Satna, Katni, Durg, Chittorgarh, Chandrapur, Yerraguntla
Raw materials for cement industry? - Limestone, clay, gypsum, coal
Which company dominates Indian cement production? - UltraTech Cement
Cement industry is classified under which sector? - Mineral-based industry
India’s rank in world cement production? - 2nd (after China)

Chemical & Fertilizer Industry

First fertilizer plant in India? - Ranipet (Tamil Nadu, 1906)
Largest fertilizer-producing state in India? - Gujarat
First modern fertilizer factory? - Sindri (Jharkhand, 1951)
Major fertilizer types? - Nitrogenous, Phosphatic, Potassic
Important fertilizer plants? - Sindri, Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Vadodara
Raw materials for fertilizer industry? - Ammonia, sulphur, rock phosphate, natural gas
India’s largest fertilizer company? - Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative (IFFCO)
IFFCO headquarters? - New Delhi
Hindustan Fertilizer Corporation Ltd (HFCL) located at? - Durgapur (West Bengal)

Engineering Industry

India’s first heavy engineering plant? - Heavy Engineering Corporation (HEC), Ranchi (Jharkhand)
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) established in? - 1956
BHEL headquarters? - New Delhi
Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT) located at? - Bengaluru
Major engineering centres? - Kolkata, Pune, Bengaluru, Jamshedpur, Hyderabad
The engineering industry provides equipment to which sectors? - Power, Transport, Mining, Steel, Cement, Defence

Petroleum Industry

India’s first oil field was discovered in? - Digboi (Assam, 1889)
“Oldest oil refinery in Asia” — where is it located? - Digboi, Assam
Largest oil-producing state in India? - Assam
Leading crude oil-producing states? - Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
Largest oil refinery in India? - Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance Industries, Gujarat)
Jamnagar refinery was established by which company? - Reliance Industries Limited
First oil refinery in the public sector? - Guwahati Refinery (Assam, 1962)
Major oil refineries in India? - Guwahati, Barauni, Mathura, Panipat, Jamnagar, Vadinar, Haldia, Chennai
Which organization explores and produces oil in India? - ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation)
ONGC headquarters? - New Delhi
Petroleum refining industry is classified as? - Mineral-based industry
India’s rank in world crude oil consumption? - 3rd (after USA and China)

Automobile Industry

First automobile company established in India? - Hindustan Motors (1942)
First car manufactured in India? - Ambassador (by Hindustan Motors)
First truck manufactured in India? - Tata Truck (1954)
Largest automobile manufacturing hub in India? - Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Chennai is known as? - Detroit of India
Largest two-wheeler manufacturer in India? - Hero MotoCorp
Major automobile manufacturing centers? - Pune, Chennai, Gurugram, Sanand, Jamshedpur, Noida
India’s rank in world automobile production? - 4th
Maruti Udyog Limited was established in which year? - 1981
Headquarters of Tata Motors? - Mumbai

Electronics Industry

First electronics industry in India started at? - Mumbai (1948)
Major centers of electronics industry? - Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune, Noida
Bengaluru is known as? - Silicon Valley of India
Leading electronics public sector enterprise? - Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
BEL headquarters? - Bengaluru
Major products of electronics industry? - Computers, Televisions, Semiconductors, Mobile phones
Electronics industry is a type of which sector? - Knowledge-based industry

Information Technology (IT) Industry

India’s first software technology park established at? - Bengaluru
Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) set up in which year? - 1991
Leading IT cities of India? - Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, Gurugram, Chennai, Noida
India’s largest IT exporter company? - Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
Other major IT companies of India? - Infosys, Wipro, HCL, Tech Mahindra
Headquarters of Infosys? - Bengaluru
India’s rank in world IT services export? - 1st
NASSCOM stands for? - National Association of Software and Service Companies

Shipbuilding Industry

First modern shipyard in India? - Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
Largest shipbuilding yard in India? - Cochin Shipyard (Kerala)
Oldest shipyard in India? - Kolkata (Garden Reach Shipbuilders)
Main shipbuilding centres? - Kolkata, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai, Cochin, Goa
Cochin Shipyard was established in which year? - 1972
Shipbuilding industry is located near? - Coastal regions and ports

Engineering & Heavy Industry

BHEL established in? - 1956
HMT located at? - Bengaluru
Heavy Engineering Corporation (HEC) — location? - Ranchi
India’s first Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant? - Bhopal
Major engineering goods exported by India? - Machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles, transport parts

Sugar Industry

Which state is the largest producer of sugar in India? - Maharashtra
Which state is the second-largest producer of sugar in India? - Uttar Pradesh
Important sugar-producing states in India? - Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Bihar
Where was the first sugar mill in India established? - Bihar (1903)
What type of industry is sugar industry? - Agro-based industry
Which region of Maharashtra is famous for sugar production? - Western Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Sangli, Satara region)
By-products of the sugar industry? - Molasses, Bagasse, and Press Mud
Which is the main raw material for sugar industry? - Sugarcane
Which country is the largest producer of sugar in the world?- Brazil
India’s rank in sugar production in the world? - 2nd (after Brazil)
Major sugar factories in Uttar Pradesh? - Meerut, Bareilly, Saharanpur, Gorakhpur
Which state has the largest number of sugar mills? - Uttar Pradesh
Cooperative sugar mills are mainly found in which state? - Maharashtra
Which is the main season for sugarcane crushing in India? - November to April

Forest & Environment

What is the name of the official report that provides India’s forest data? - India State of Forest Report (ISFR)
ISFR report is published by which organization? - Forest Survey of India (FSI)
Latest available India State of Forest Report year? - 2019
Total geographical area of India? - 3,287,469 sq km
Total forest and tree cover area of India (as per ISFR 2019) -8,07,276 sq km
Percentage of India’s geographical area covered by forest and trees? - 24.56%
State with maximum forest cover in India? - Madhya Pradesh
State with highest percentage of forest cover area to its geographical area? - Mizoram
Which state has the largest bamboo-bearing area in India - Madhya Pradesh
Which state has the largest area under mangrove forests? - West Bengal (Sundarbans)
What are wetlands? - Areas covered with water throughout or for a significant part of the year, like marshes, swamps, and lakes.
What percentage of India’s area is under wetlands? - About 4.7%

Mangrove Ecosystem

Which state has the largest mangrove cover in India? - West Bengal
Second largest mangrove area found in? - Gujarat
Major mangrove areas in India? - Sundarbans (West Bengal), Bhitarkanika (Odisha), Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu), Goa, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Importance of mangroves? - Protect coastal areas from erosion, provide habitat for marine life, and act as carbon sinks.

QUICK REVISION FACTS (Highly Expected)

Largest producer of sugar – Maharashtra
2nd largest producer – Uttar Pradesh
Largest number of sugar mills – Uttar Pradesh
Cooperative sugar mills – Maharashtra
First sugar mill – Bihar (1903)
Agro-based industry – Sugar Industry
Forest Survey agency – FSI (Dehradun)
Report on forests – ISFR
Largest forest area – Madhya Pradesh
Highest % forest cover – Mizoram
Largest bamboo area – Madhya Pradesh
Largest mangrove area – West Bengal (Sundarbans)
Total forest cover – 21.67%
Total tree cover – 2.89%
Total forest + tree cover – 24.56% of India

WILDLIFE & NATIONAL PARKS OF INDIA

When was the Wildlife Protection Act enacted in India? - 1972
When was the Project Tiger launched? - 1973
The Project Tiger was launched to protect which animal? - Royal Bengal Tiger
Which is the largest tiger reserve in India? - Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam (Andhra Pradesh)
Which is the first national park of India? - Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand, 1936)
How many National Parks are there in India (as per recent data)? - 108 National Parks
How many Wildlife Sanctuaries are there in India? - 566 Sanctuaries
Which is the largest National Park in India?- Hemis National Park (Ladakh)
Which is the smallest National Park in India? - South Button Island National Park (Andaman & Nicobar)
Which state has the highest number of National Parks? - Madhya Pradesh
Which state has the highest number of wildlife sanctuaries? - Maharashtra
The Gir National Park in Gujarat is famous for? - Asiatic Lions
The Kaziranga National Park is famous for?- One-horned Rhinoceros
The Sundarbans National Park is famous for? - Royal Bengal Tigers and Mangrove Forests
The Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur) National Park is known for? - Migratory Birds (Siberian Cranes)
The Manas National Park and Kaziranga National Park are located in which state? - Assam
The Bandhavgarh National Park and Kanha National Park are in?- Madhya Pradesh
The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is located in? - Kerala
The Ranthambore National Park is located in? - Rajasthan
The Bandipur and Nagarhole National Parks are in? - Karnataka
The Simlipal National Park is located in? - Odisha
The Sanjay Gandhi National Park is located in? - Mumbai, Maharashtra
The Desert National Park is in? - Rajasthan
The Great Himalayan National Park is in? - Himachal Pradesh
The Valmiki National Park is located in? - Bihar

FOREST CONSERVATION & ENVIRONMENT

The Forest Conservation Act was enacted in which year? - 1980
The Chipko Movement was started in which state? - Uttarakhand (then part of Uttar Pradesh)
Who was the leader of the Chipko Movement? - Sunderlal Bahuguna
The Appiko Movement took place in? - Karnataka
Silent Valley Project is located in which state? - Kerala
The main objective of the Silent Valley Project was? - To protect tropical evergreen forests
When was the Project Elephant launched in India? - 1992
India’s first biosphere reserve is? - Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (1986)
Total number of Biosphere Reserves in India? - 18
Which biosphere reserve is in West Bengal? - Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
Which is the largest biosphere reserve in India? - Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)
Which is the smallest biosphere reserve in India? - Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam)
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established in? - 2010
India’s first eco-development project was started in? - Gir National Park (Gujarat)
The Ministry of Environment & Forests was established in? - 1985

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTS

Wildlife Protection Act – 1972

Forest Conservation Act – 1980

Project Tiger – 1973

Project Elephant – 1992

Chipko Movement – 1973

First Biosphere Reserve – Nilgiri (1986)

Largest Biosphere Reserve – Gulf of Mannar

First National Park – Jim Corbett (1936)

Largest National Park – Hemis (Ladakh)

Highest Forest Area – Madhya Pradesh

Highest % Forest Cover – Mizoram

Mangrove Area – West Bengal

Largest Bamboo Area – Madhya Pradesh

Himalayan Drainage System

Main drainage systems of India: Himalayan and Peninsular drainage.
Major river systems of Himalayan drainage: Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
Nature of Himalayan rivers: Perennial (fed by rain and glaciers).
Indus River origin: Near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet (altitude ~5,000 m).
Total length of Indus River: 2,880 km (1,114 km in India).
Tributaries of Indus River: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej.
Largest tributary of Indus: Chenab River.
Sutlej River origin: Rakas Lake near Mansarovar (Tibet).
Beas River origin: Near Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh).
Indus River flows into: Arabian Sea near Karachi (Pakistan).
Ganga River origin: From Bhagirathi (Gangotri Glacier) and Alaknanda (Satopanth Glacier).
Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda: Devprayag.
Total length of Ganga River: About 2,525 km.
Ganga’s northern tributaries: Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi.
Ganga’s southern tributary: Son River.
Yamuna River origin: Yamunotri Glacier (Uttarakhand).
Kosi River nickname: “Sorrow of Bihar.”
Ganga enters Bangladesh as: Padma River.
Ganga and Brahmaputra together form: Sundarbans Delta.
Largest delta in the world: Sundarbans Delta.
Brahmaputra River origin: Chemayungdung Glacier near Mansarovar (Tibet).
Brahmaputra in Tibet is called: Tsangpo.
Brahmaputra in India is called: Dihang.
Brahmaputra in Bangladesh is called: Jamuna.
Drainage type of Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej: Antecedent drainage.
Meaning of antecedent drainage: Rivers older than Himalayan uplift, cut across ranges.
Meaning of consequent drainage: Rivers following the slope of the land.
Meaning of inconsequent drainage: Rivers not following a definite slope.
Sundarbans Delta lies in: India and Bangladesh.
Characteristic feature of Himalayan rivers: Deep valleys, meanders, ox-bow lakes, deltas.
Indus River flows mainly through: Pakistan.
River forming India-Pakistan boundary: Indus River.
River known as “lifeline of Punjab”: Sutlej River.
Ganga plain covers: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal.
Brahmaputra valley lies in: Assam.

Peninsular Drainage System

Main drainage systems of India: Himalayan and Peninsular.
Nature of Peninsular rivers: Seasonal (rain-fed).
Peninsular rivers are older than: Himalayan rivers.
Type of drainage pattern in Peninsular rivers: Radial, Dendritic, and Trellis.
Main water divide in Peninsular India: Western Ghats.
Rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
Rivers flowing westward into the Arabian Sea: Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati, Mandovi.
Largest Peninsular River: Godavari River.
Godavari River is also called: Dakshin Ganga (Ganga of the South).
Length of Godavari River: About 1,465 km.
Godavari River origin: Trimbakeshwar Hills, Nashik (Maharashtra).
Tributaries of Godavari: Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, Manjira.
Godavari River drains into: Bay of Bengal.
Krishna River origin: Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra).
Tributaries of Krishna River: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Musi.
Length of Krishna River: About 1,400 km.
Mahanadi River origin: Sihawa Range (Chhattisgarh).
Mahanadi River flows through: Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
Mahanadi River drains into: Bay of Bengal.
Important dam on Mahanadi River: Hirakud Dam (Odisha).
Kaveri River origin: Brahmagiri Hills, Kodagu (Karnataka).
Kaveri River flows through: Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Kaveri River drains into: Bay of Bengal.
Important dam on Kaveri River: Mettur Dam.
Narmada River origin: Amarkantak Plateau (Madhya Pradesh).
Narmada River drains into: Arabian Sea.
Type of valley formed by Narmada: Rift valley.
Important waterfall on Narmada: Dhuandhar Falls (near Jabalpur).
Tapi (Tapti) River origin: Satpura Hills (Madhya Pradesh).
Tapi River drains into: Arabian Sea.
River parallel to Narmada: Tapi River.
Mahi River origin: Madhya Pradesh.
Mahi River drains into: Gulf of Khambhat (Arabian Sea).
Sabarmati River origin: Aravalli Hills (Rajasthan).
Sabarmati River drains into: Gulf of Khambhat.
Mandovi and Zuari rivers are in: Goa.
Sharavathi River famous for: Jog Falls (Karnataka).
Dam on Narmada River: Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Dam on Krishna River: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.
Peninsular rivers are mainly used for: Irrigation and hydroelectricity.
East-flowing rivers form: Deltas.
West-flowing rivers form: Estuaries.
The only large west-flowing rivers: Narmada and Tapi.
Small west-flowing rivers: Mahi, Mandovi, Zuari, Bharathapuzha, Periyar.
Kaveri is known as: The lifeline of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Narmada forms a boundary between: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Peninsular rivers have reached: Mature stage of erosion.
River with the second largest delta in India: Godavari.
Rivers flowing through rift valleys: Narmada and Tapi.
Direction of most Peninsular rivers: From west to east.

Ganga–Brahmaputra Drainage Highlights

Kosi River is known as: The Sorrow of Bihar.
Kosi River causes floods in: North Bihar plains.
Ganga River enters Bangladesh as: Padma River.
Brahmaputra joins Ganga in Bangladesh to form: Sundarbans Delta.
World’s largest delta: Sundarbans Delta (Ganga + Brahmaputra).
Brahmaputra River origin: Chemayungdung Glacier near Manasarovar.
Brahmaputra is known as in Tibet: Tsangpo.
Brahmaputra is known as in Bangladesh: Jamuna.
Brahmaputra forms deep gorges in: Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
Important gorge of Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh: Dihang Gorge.
River valleys between Dihang and Dibang: Formed by tributaries of Brahmaputra.
Brahmaputra is a type of: Antecedent river.
Meaning of antecedent river: River older than mountain uplift, cuts across ranges.
Brahmaputra is joined by which tributaries in Assam? Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Dhansiri.
Brahmaputra valley is known for: Fertile alluvium and frequent floods.

Major Water Channels of India

Lakshadweep Islands are separated from Maldives by: 8° Channel.
Lakshadweep and Maldives lie between: 8° N and 12° N latitudes.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are separated by: 10° Channel.
India and Sri Lanka are separated by: Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.
Middle Andaman and Little Andaman separated by: Duncan Passage.
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are connected through: Indian Ocean Basin.

Peninsular Drainage

Peninsular rivers are mostly: Seasonal (rain-fed).
Peninsular drainage formed before: The uplift of Himalayas.
Main water divide in Peninsular India: Western Ghats.
Most Peninsular rivers flow: Eastward to the Bay of Bengal.
Rivers flowing westward to Arabian Sea: Narmada and Tapi.
East-flowing rivers form: Deltas.
West-flowing rivers form: Estuaries.
Peninsular rivers have broad valleys and gentle slopes.
Peninsular drainage system is older than: The Himalayan drainage system.

Key Geographical Terms

Gorge’ means: A deep narrow valley with steep sides formed by river erosion.
Important gorges in India: Dihang Gorge (Brahmaputra), Kali Gorge (Kali River).
Rivers forming gorges in the Himalayas: Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
Delta means: A triangular landform formed at the river mouth where it meets the sea.
Estuary means: A narrow river mouth where tidal water flows in and out (no delta).

General Features

Peninsular rivers are mostly: Seasonal and non-perennial.
They depend mainly on: Rainfall.
Peninsular drainage system is older than: The Himalayan drainage system.
Most Peninsular rivers flow: Eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Important east-flowing rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
Important west-flowing rivers: Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati.
East-flowing rivers form: Deltas.
West-flowing rivers form: Estuaries.
Peninsular rivers are characterized by: Fixed courses, absence of meanders, and non-perennial flow.
Main water divide of Peninsular India: Western Ghats.

East-Flowing Rivers (Towards Bay of Bengal)

1. Mahanadi River

Mahanadi origin: Sihawa Range, Chhattisgarh.
Mahanadi flows through: Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
Total length: About 851 km.
Major tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Jonk, Tel.
Important dam: Hirakud Dam (Odisha).
Mahanadi drains into: Bay of Bengal.

2. Godavari River

Godavari is the largest Peninsular river.
Known as: Dakshin Ganga (Ganga of the South).
Origin: Trimbakeshwar Hills (Nashik, Maharashtra).
Length: About 1,465 km.
Catchment area: About 3,12,812 sq km.
Major tributaries: Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, Manjira.
Flows through: Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.
Forms a large delta before entering the Bay of Bengal.

3. Krishna River

Origin: Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra).
Length: About 1,400 km.
Flows through: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.
Main tributaries: Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Musi.
Important dam: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam.

4. Kaveri River

Origin: Brahmagiri Hills (Kodagu, Karnataka).
Length: About 800 km.
Flows through: Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Major tributaries: Hemavati, Arkavati, Shimsha, Bhavani, Amaravati.
Important dam: Mettur Dam.
Kaveri drains into: Bay of Bengal.

West-Flowing Rivers (Towards Arabian Sea)

Main west-flowing rivers: Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati.
West-flowing rivers form: Estuaries
Narmada River origin: Amarkantak Plateau (Madhya Pradesh).
Tapi River origin: Satpura Hills (Madhya Pradesh).
Narmada and Tapi flow through: Rift valleys between Vindhyan and Satpura ranges.
Narmada empties into: Gulf of Khambhat (Arabian Sea).
Important dam on Narmada: Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Important dam on Tapi: Ukai Dam (Gujarat).
Sabarmati River origin: Aravalli Hills (Rajasthan).
Mahi River flows through: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat.
Mahi River drains into: Gulf of Khambhat.
Other short west-flowing rivers: Mandovi, Zuari, Periyar, Bharathapuzha.

Water Resources & Irrigation in India

Main sources of irrigation in India: Canals, wells, and tube wells.
States with highest canal irrigation: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana.
States with highest well irrigation: Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh.
Which project is the second largest multipurpose river valley project in India? : Hirakud.
The Damodar Valley Corporation is a multipurpose project on which river?: Damodar River.
Name the power house generating hydroelectric power in Tehri Dam.: Tehri Hydro Power Plant.
The Tungabhadra project is located in which states? : Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Which ministry oversees Indian Railways?: Ministry of Railways.
What is the main component of transport in India by volume?: Road transport
Which authority manages National Highways? : National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
Which National Waterway includes Ganga river system? : NW1 (National Waterway 1).

Border Roads Organisation (BRO)

When was BRO established? : 1960.
What is the purpose of BRO? : Construction and maintenance of roads in border areas.
Which borders' roads does BRO maintain? : Indo-Tibet (China), Indo-Nepal, Indo-Bhutan, and Indo-Afghan borders

Western Ghats Passes

Name some important passes in the Western Ghats.: Bhor Ghat, Thal Ghat, Palghat Pass.
What does Bhor Ghat connect? : Mumbai and Pune.
What does Thal Ghat connect? : Mumbai and Nasik.
What is the significance of the NH 44 highway? : It is the longest National Highway in India, connecting the north to the south.
Name some of the important border roads maintained by BRO. : Roads connecting India to Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Afghanistan.
When was the Green Highways (Plantation, Beautification & Maintenance) Act enacted? : 2016.
What is the main function of the Border Roads Organisation (BRO)?: Construction and maintenance of roads in border and high altitude areas.
What are major types of roads in India? : National Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and Rural Roads.
Which highway is called the "Golden Quadrilateral"? : A network of highways connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata

Largest producer of hydroelectric power: Himachal Pradesh (HP)
Largest thermal power producer: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
Nuclear Power Stations: Tarapur, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kakrapar, Kaiga
NTPC full form: National Thermal Power Corporation
NHPC full form: National Hydroelectric Power Corporation

Expected Exam Questions

Which state has the largest road network - Maharashtra
Which organization is responsible for maintaining National Highways?- NHAI
Bhakra Nangal Project is built on which river- Sutlej
Damodar Valley Project lies in which states- Jharkhand & West Bengal
Which project is jointly managed by M.P. and Rajasthan?- Chambal Project
Sardar Sarovar Dam is constructed on which river?- Narmada
Which is India’s largest hydroelectric power project?- Bhakra Nangal
What is the main objective of Multipurpose River Valley Projects?- Irrigation, flood control, and power generation

National Highways

Longest National Highway in India: NH-44
Length: 3,745 km
From: Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir)
To: Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu)

Shortest National Highway in India: NH-548 (about 5 km)

From: Kalamboli (Navi Mumbai) → Jawaharlal Nehru Port

NH-27: From Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar (Assam)
Length: 3,507 km (second longest NH)

Golden Quadrilateral (GQ)

Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata
Total length: 5,846 km
Purpose: Improve road connectivity between major metro cities.
North-South Corridor: Srinagar to Kanyakumari
East-West Corridor: Silchar to Porbandar
National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) established in 1988.

Major Highway Development Projects

NHDP: National Highways Development Project
Bharatmala Project: Launched in 2017
Setu Bharatam Project: Launched in 2016
One Nation, One Fastag Scheme: Launched in 2019

Border Roads Organisation (BRO)

Established in: 1960
Operates under: Ministry of Defence
Headquarters: New Delhi
Main function: Construction and maintenance of roads in border areas and hilly terrains.

Famous projects

Project Dantak – in Bhutan

Project Himank – in Ladakh

Project Deepak – in Himachal Pradesh

Project Vartak – in Arunachal Pradesh

Rail Transport

First railway line in India: Between Bombay (Mumbai) and Thane, 1853.
Total route length (approx): 67,000 km.
Zonal Railways in India: 18 zones.
Fastest train in India: Vande Bharat Express.
Railway Headquarters: New Delhi.
Railways are most suitable for: Long-distance transport of goods and passengers.

Mountain Passes in India

Pass Location - Connects / Importance

Nathula Pass - Sikkim India and China (Silk Route trade)
Jelep La Pass - Sikkim Trade route between India & Tibet
Shipki La Pass - Himachal Pradesh India and Tibet
Rohtang Pass - Himachal Pradesh Kullu → Lahaul-Spiti
Banihal Pass - Jammu & Kashmir Jammu → Srinagar
Zoji La Pass - J&K Srinagar → Leh
Pal Ghat Pass - Kerala-Tamil Nadu Connects Malabar Coast with Tamil Nadu
Thal Ghat & Bhor Ghat - Maharashtra Connect Mumbai with Deccan Plateau

Expected Competitive Exam Questions

Which is the longest National Highway in India - NH-44 (Srinagar to Kanyakumari)
Which is the shortest National Highway in India - NH-548 (5 km)
Which four cities are connected by the Golden Quadrilateral? - Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata
Which organization builds roads in border areas?- Border Roads Organisation (BRO)
When was BRO established? - 1960
Which project was launched in 2017 for highway connectivity? - Bharatmala Project
Which scheme introduced digital toll collection across India? - One Nation, One Fastag (2019)
Shipki La Pass connects India with which country? - Tibet (China)
Pal Ghat Pass connects which regions? - Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Which corridor connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari? - North–South Corridor

Rail Transport in India

India’s First Railway Line: Between Mumbai (then Bombay) and Thane, started on 16 April 1853. Length: 34 km
Headquarters of Indian Railways:New Delhi
Railways come under which ministry - Ministry of Railways, Government of India
Indian Railways was nationalized in: 1951
First Indian train electrified section: Between Bombay VT and Kurla (1925)
Longest Railway Route in India: Dibrugarh (Assam) to Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) — Vivek Express (4,286 km)
Longest Railway Platform in India: Hubballi (Karnataka) — 1,507 meters (updated record)

Major Railway Facts

First Metro Railway in India - Kolkata Metro, started 1984
Second Metro System: Delhi Metro, started 2002
Fastest Train in India: Vande Bharat Express (Train 18)
First Fully Air-Conditioned Train: Rajdhani Express (1969, Delhi–Howrah)
World’s Highest Rail Bridge: Chenab Bridge (J&K), completed in 2021
Indian Railways' Fastest Freight Corridor: Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC)
Eastern DFC: Ludhiana to Dankuni
Western DFC: Dadri to JNPT (Mumbai)

Major Passes & Rail Routes (India)

Pass Connects Important Route / Project

Nathula Pass Sikkim – China Indo-China Trade Route
Shipki La Pass Himachal – Tibet Border Trade Route
Rohtang Pass Kullu – Lahaul Spiti Manali–Leh Highway
Banihal Pass Jammu – Srinagar Jawahar Tunnel passes through
Pal Ghat Pass Kerala – Tamil Nadu Important railway link between west & east coast
Thal Ghat (Bhor Ghat) Mumbai – Pune Connects Konkan Coast with Deccan Plateau

Zonal Railways and Headquarters

Zone Headquarters Year Formed

East Central Railway - Hajipur 1996
North Western Railway - Jaipur 2002
South East Central Railway - Bilaspur 2003
South Western Railway - Hubballi 2003
West Central Railway - Jabalpur 2002

Major Development Projects & Schemes

Mission Raftaar (2016):To increase average train speed by 25 km/h.
Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC): Separate tracks for freight transport – Eastern & Western Corridors.
National Rail Plan (NRP): Launched in 2020, aims for railway infrastructure planning till 2050.
Indian Railways Dedicated Freight Corridors: Eastern Corridor: Ludhiana → Dankuni, Western Corridor: Dadri → JNPT (Mumbai)

Expected Competitive Exam Questions

When and where did the first train run in India? - 16 April 1853, between Mumbai and Thane
Which is India’s longest railway route? - Vivek Express (Dibrugarh–Kanyakumari, 4286 km)
Where is India’s longest railway platform located - Hubballi (Karnataka)
Which is the world’s highest railway bridge - Chenab Bridge (Jammu & Kashmir)
When was Indian Railways nationalized? - 1951
Which is India’s first metro railway? - Kolkata Metro (1984)
What is Mission Raftaar? - Scheme to increase the average speed of trains.
Where is the headquarters of East Central Railway? - Hajipur
When was the National Rail Plan launched? - 2020
Which ministry controls Indian Railways? - Ministry of Railways

Important Questions & Answer

When was Indian National Airways Company started? - It was started in 1933.
When did Air Transport begin in India? - In 1911.
When was Air India International started? - In 1948.
When was Air India and Indian Airlines merged - 2007.
What is the full form of AAI? - Airports Authority of India.
When was Airports Authority of India (AAI) constituted? - In 1995 by merging National Airports Authority (NAA) and International Airports Authority of India (IAAI).
What is the full form of DGCA? - Directorate General of Civil Aviation.
What is the full form of BCAS? - Bureau of Civil Aviation Security.
What is the full form of AERA? - Airports Economic Regulatory Authority.
When was AERA established? - 2008.
What is the full form of IAF? - Indian Air Force.
What is the full form of UDAAN? - Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik (Regional Connectivity Scheme).
When was UDAAN launched? - In October 2016.
When was AERA Amendment Act passed? - In 2019.
What is the full form of GAGAN? - GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation.
What is the main objective of GAGAN? - To provide accurate satellite-based navigation services.
When was the GAGAN system certified for operational use? - May 2015.

Major International Airports of India

Airport Name Place

Indira Gandhi International Airport - Delhi
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport - Mumbai
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport- Kolkata
Chennai International Airport - Chennai
Kempegowda International Airport - Bengaluru
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport - Hyderabad
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport - Ahmedabad
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport -Nagpur
Trivandrum International Airport - Thiruvananthapuram

Aviation in India

When did air transport begin in India? - 1911
Which was the first airline company started in India? - Indian National Airways Company
When was the Indian National Airways Company started? - 1933
When was Air India International started? - 1948
When was Air India and Indian Airlines merged? - 1 April 2007
When was Airports Authority of India (AAI) constituted? - 1995
Which two organizations were merged to form AAI? - National Airports Authority (NAA) and International Airports Authority of India (IAAI)
Full form of AAI? - Airports Authority of India
Full form of DGCA? - Directorate General of Civil Aviation
Full form of BCAS? - Bureau of Civil Aviation Security
Full form of AERA?- Airports Economic Regulatory Authority
When was AERA established? - 2008
When was AERA Amendment Act passed? - 2019
Full form of UDAAN? - Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik
When was UDAAN scheme launched? - October 2016
Objective of UDAAN scheme? - To make air travel affordable and improve regional connectivity.
Full form of GAGAN? - GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
Which two organizations developed GAGAN? - AAI and ISRO
When was GAGAN system certified for operational use? - May 2015
India is the ____ largest domestic civil aviation market in the world. - Third
How many airports does AAI manage? - 125 airports
How many international airports are under AAI? - 11 international + 8 customs airports
Full form of IAF? - Indian Air Force
Where is Indira Gandhi International Airport located? - Delhi
Where is Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport located? - Mumbai
Where is Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport located? - Kolkata
Where is Chennai International Airport located - Chennai
Where is Kempegowda International Airport located? - Bengaluru
Where is Rajiv Gandhi International Airport located? - Hyderabad
Where is Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport located? - Ahmedabad
Where is Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport located? - Nagpur
Where is Trivandrum International Airport located? - Thiruvananthapuram
Which scheme is aimed at making flying affordable for common people? - UDAN
Which organization regulates economic aspects of airports in India? - AERA
Which organization looks after aviation security? - BCAS
Which body regulates civil aviation in India? - DGCA
In which year was Air India International nationalized? - 1953
What is the main focus of Regional Connectivity Scheme (UDAN)? - To improve air connectivity to tier-II and tier-III cities.
Under which ministry does DGCA function - Ministry of Civil Aviation
Headquarters of AAI is located at? - New Delhi

States, UTs and Their Capitals

What is the capital of Andhra Pradesh? - Amaravati
What is the capital of Arunachal Pradesh?- Itanagar
What is the capital of Assam? - Dispur
What is the capital of Bihar? - Patna
What is the capital of Chhattisgarh? - Raipur
What is the capital of Goa? - Panaji
What is the capital of Gujarat?- Gandhinagar
What is the capital of Haryana? - Chandigarh
What is the capital of Himachal Pradesh? - Shimla (Summer), Dharamshala (Winter)
What is the capital of Jharkhand? - Ranchi
What is the capital of Karnataka? - Bengaluru
What is the capital of Kerala? - Thiruvananthapuram
What is the capital of Madhya Pradesh? - Bhopal
What is the capital of Maharashtra? - Mumbai
What is the capital of Manipur? - Imphal
What is the capital of Meghalaya? - Shillong
What is the capital of Mizoram?- Aizawl
What is the capital of Nagaland? - Kohima
What is the capital of Odisha? - Bhubaneswar
What is the capital of Punjab? - Chandigarh
What is the capital of Rajasthan? - Jaipur
What is the capital of Sikkim? - Gangtok
What is the capital of Tamil Nadu? - Chennai
What is the capital of Telangana? - Hyderabad
What is the capital of Tripura? - Agartala
What is the capital of Uttar Pradesh? - Lucknow
What is the capital of Uttarakhand? - Dehradun
What is the capital of West Bengal? - Kolkata

Union Territories and Capitals

What is the capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands? - Port Blair
What is the capital of Chandigarh UT? - Chandigarh
What is the capital of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu? - Daman
What is the capital of Delhi UT? - New Delhi
What is the capital of Jammu & Kashmir UT - Srinagar (Summer), Jammu (Winter)
What is the capital of Ladakh UT? - Leh
What is the capital of Lakshadweep UT? - Kavaratti
What is the capital of Puducherry UT? - Puducherry

When was the Census Act passed in India - 1948
When was the first Census conducted in India - 1872
When was the first synchronous Census conducted in India? - 1881
Census 2011 was which number Census since 1872? - 15th Census
Census 2011 was which number synchronous Census since 1881? - 7th Synchronous Census
When was Census 2011 conducted? - House listing and Housing Census – April to September 2010; Population Enumeration – 9 to 28 February 2011
Under which act is the Census conducted in India? - Census Act, 1948

Literacy

What was the literacy rate of India as per Census 2011? - 74.04%
What was the male literacy rate in 2011? - 82.14%
What was the female literacy rate in 2011? - 65.46%
Which state has the highest literacy rate in India (2011)? - Kerala (94.0%)
Which state has the lowest literacy rate in India (2011)? - Bihar (61.8%)
Which Union Territory has the highest literacy rate (2011)? - Lakshadweep (91.85%)
Which Union Territory has the lowest literacy rate (2011)? - Dadra and Nagar Haveli (77.65%)
Sex ratio of India in 2011? - 943 females per 1000 males
Which state has the highest sex ratio (2011) - Kerala (1084 females per 1000 males)
Which UT has the highest sex ratio (2011) - Puducherry (1038)
Which is the most populous state in India (2011)? - Uttar Pradesh
Which is the most populous Union Territory (2011)? - Delhi
Which is the least populous state in India (2011) - Sikkim (6.1 lakh)

Wildlife Sanctuaries & National Parks

Which is the first National Park of India? - Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) – established in 1936
Which is the largest National Park in India? - Hemis National Park (Ladakh)
Name the famous wildlife sanctuaries in Madhya Pradesh - Bandhavgarh, Kanha, Pench, Panna
Where is Bandipur National Park located - Karnataka
Where is Bhitarkanika National Park located? - Odisha
Where is Dudhwa National Park located? - Uttar Pradesh
Where is Simlipal National Park located? - Odisha
Where is Periyar National Park located? - Kerala
Where is Kaziranga National Park located? - Assam
Where is Manas Wildlife Sanctuary located - Assam

Important National Parks & Wildlife Sanctuaries

Kanha National Park – Located in Madhya Pradesh; famous for Barasingha (Swamp Deer).
Bandhavgarh National Park – Madhya Pradesh; known for Royal Bengal Tigers.
Gir National Park – Gujarat; only home of Asiatic Lions.
Jim Corbett National Park – Uttarakhand; India’s first National Park (1936).
Kaziranga National Park – Assam; famous for One-Horned Rhinoceros.
Manas National Park – Assam; famous for Wild Water Buffalo.
Sundarbans National Park – West Bengal; famous for Royal Bengal Tigers and Mangrove forest.
Ranthambore National Park – Rajasthan; famous for Tigers.
Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur) National Park – Rajasthan; famous for Migratory Birds (Siberian Crane).
Periyar National Park – Kerala; famous for Elephants and Tigers.
Silent Valley National Park – Kerala; Tropical evergreen forest.
Sanjay Gandhi National Park – Maharashtra; near Mumbai.
Tadoba National Park – Maharashtra; famous for Tigers.
Simlipal National Park – Odisha; famous for Elephants and Tigers.
Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary – Jharkhand; known for Wild Bear, Nilgai, and Sambhar.
Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary – Odisha; known for Migratory Birds.
Nagarhole National Park – Karnataka; known for Elephants and Deer.
Bandipur National Park – Karnataka; famous for Tigers and Elephants.
Eravikulam National Park – Kerala; famous for Nilgiri Tahr.
Namdapha National Park – Arunachal Pradesh; known for Clouded Leopard and Tigers.

Important Irrigation & Power Projects (Multipurpose Projects)

Project River State(s) Use

Bhakra Nangal Project River - Sutlej Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan - Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Hirakud Project River - Mahanadi Odisha - Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Damodar Valley Project River - Damodar - Jharkhand, West Bengal Flood control - Irrigation, Power
Tungabhadra Project River - Tungabhadra - Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh - Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Sardar Sarovar Project River - Narmada - Gujarat Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Nagarjuna Sagar Project River - Krishna - Telangana & Andhra Pradesh Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Kosi Project River - Kosi - Bihar Irrigation & Flood Control
Rihand Project River - Rihand (Son tributary) UP, MP, Bihar - Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Chambal Project River - Chambal MP & Rajasthan - Irrigation & Hydroelectricity
Mettur Project River - Cauvery - Tamil Nadu - Irrigation & Power
Bhima Project River - Bhima Maharashtra - Irrigation
Sharavathi Project River Sharavathi - Karnataka - Hydroelectricity
Periyar Project River Periyar -Kerala - Irrigation & Power
Sileru Project River Sileru - Andhra Pradesh - Hydroelectricity
Mayurakshi Project River - Mayurakshi - West Bengal Irrigation
Tehri Project River Bhagirathi - Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity
Ukai Project River - Tapi Gujarat - Irrigation & Power
Kakrapar Project River - Tapi Gujarat - Irrigation
Jayakwadi Project River - Godavari Maharashtra - Irrigation & Power
Indravati Project River - Indravati Odisha - Hydroelectricity
Rana Pratap Sagar Project River - Chambal Rajasthan - Hydroelectricity

Important One-Liner

First National Park of India – Jim Corbett National Park (1936).
Project Tiger launched in – 1973.
Largest Dam in India – Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand).
Longest River Dam in India – Hirakud Dam (Odisha).
Tallest Dam in India – Tehri Dam on Bhagirathi River.
Multipurpose Project on River Narmada – Sardar Sarovar Project.
Only Lion Sanctuary in India – Gir National Park (Gujarat).
National Park famous for One-Horned Rhino – Kaziranga (Assam).
National Park known for Swamp Deer – Kanha (MP).
National Park famous for Siberian Cranes – Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan).

Mount Everest

Where is Mount Everest located - On the Nepal–China (Tibet) border in the Himalayas.
What is the height of Mount Everest - 8,848.86 meters (as per latest survey 2020).
Who were the first to climb Mount Everest? - Sir Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) and Tenzing Norgay (Nepal) on 29 May 1953.
Who was the first Indian man to climb Mount Everest? - Avtar Singh Cheema in 1965.
Who was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest - Bachendri Pal on 23 May 1984.
Who was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest twice?→ Santosh Yadav (in 1992 & 1993).
Who was the youngest Indian girl to scale Mount Everest? → Poorna Malavath (age 13 years, 2014).
Who was the first Indian to climb Mount Everest without oxygen? → Phu Dorjee in 1984.
Who was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest without oxygen? → Bachendri Pal (attempted partially without oxygen; full record by Anshu Jamsenpa).
Who climbed Mount Everest five times (record)→ Appa Sherpa (Nepal); later broke records climbing Everest 21 times.
Who was the youngest person to climb Mount Everest (world record)? → Jordan Romero (USA) at the age of 13 years in 2010.
Who was the oldest person to climb Mount Everest (world record)? → Yuichiro Miura (Japan) – at 80 years old in 2013.
Which Indian twin sisters climbed Mount Everest together?→ Tashi and Nungshi Malik in 2013.
Who was the first Indian amputee to scale Mount Everest?→ Arunima Sinha in 2013.
Who was the first Indian civilian to reach Mount Everest summit? → Phu Dorjee Sherpa (Darjeeling) in 1965.

Quick One-Liners for Fast Revision

Mount Everest height – 8,848.86 m
Located in – Nepal–China border
First climbers – Hillary & Tenzing (1953)
First Indian woman climber – Bachendri Pal (1984)
First Indian man climber – Avtar Singh Cheema (1965)
Youngest Indian girl – Poorna Malavath (13 yrs, 2014)
First Indian amputee climber – Arunima Sinha (2013)
Tallest dam in India – Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand)
Longest dam in India – Hirakud Dam (Odisha)
Largest multipurpose river valley project in India – Bhakra Nangal

Mount Everest

Where is Mount Everest located? → On the Nepal–China (Tibet) border, in the Mahalangur Range of the Himalayas.
What is the height of Mount Everest?→ 8,848.86 meters (29,031.7 ft) above sea level.
What are the coordinates of Mount Everest? → 27°59′ North latitude and 86°56′ East longitude.
Who first measured the height of Mount Everest → Sir George Everest, Surveyor General of India (after whom the peak is named).
In which year was the official height of Mount Everest established?→ 1954 by Survey of India.
What is Mount Everest called in Nepal and Tibet→ Sagarmatha in Nepal and Chomolungma in Tibet.
Who were the first people to climb Mount Everest successfully?→ Sir Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) and Tenzing Norgay (Nepal) on 29 May 1953.
From which side did Hillary and Tenzing climb Mount Everest?→ From the South Col (Nepal) route.
Who made the first attempt to climb Mount Everest?→ George Mallory and Andrew Irvine (British Expedition, 1924 – both perished).
Who was the first Indian man to reach the summit of Mount Everest?→ Avtar Singh Cheema (1965).
Who was the first Indian woman to scale Mount Everest?→ Bachendri Pal (23 May 1984).
Who was the first woman in the world to climb Mount Everest?→ Junko Tabei (Japan), in 1975.
Who was the first Indian to climb Mount Everest without oxygen?→ Phu Dorjee Sherpa (1984).
Who was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest twice?→ Santosh Yadav (1992 & 1993).
Who was the youngest girl in the world to climb Mount Everest?→ Poorna Malavath (India), age 13 years 11 months (2014).
Who was the youngest Indian boy to climb Mount Everest?→ Arjun Vajpai, aged 16 years (2010).
Who was the first Indian civilian to reach Mount Everest?→ Phu Dorjee Sherpa (Darjeeling), in 1965.
Who was the first Indian amputee to climb Mount Everest?→ Arunima Sinha (2013).
Who was the first Indian twin sisters to scale Mount Everest together?→ Tashi and Nungshi Malik (2013).
Who was the first Indian to climb Mount Everest from both sides (Nepal and Tibet)?→ Anshu Jamsenpa (Arunachal Pradesh) – also climbed it five times.
Who is the oldest person to climb Mount Everest→ Yuichiro Miura (Japan), at the age of 80 years (2013).
Who is the youngest person in the world to climb Mount Everest?→ Jordan Romero (USA), at 13 years (2010).
Which Indian mountaineer holds the record for highest number of Everest summits?→ Kami Rita Sherpa – climbed Everest 29 times (latest record).
What is the international border that passes through Mount Everest?→ China–Nepal border.
Who was the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest without oxygen?→ Anshu Jamsenpa.
Which Indian state is home to Bachendri Pal?→ Uttarakhand.
In which year was the first successful Indian expedition to Mount Everest?→ 1965.
Who was the leader of the first Indian expedition to Everest (1965)?→ M.S. Kohli.
What is the local Sherpa name for Mount Everest→ Chomolungma – meaning “Goddess Mother of the World.”
Mount Everest is located in which Himalayan range?→ Mahalangur Himal Range.
First Indian woman amputee to climb Everest – Arunima Sinha (2013).
First Indian woman to climb Everest twice – Santosh Yadav.
Oldest Indian woman to scale Everest – Premlata Agarwal (2011).
Mount Everest lies in the Mahalangur section of the Greater Himalayas.
World’s youngest female climber (Poorna Malavath) belongs to Telangana.
Himalayan rivers originate from glaciers; most projects listed are built on them.
Tehri Dam on Bhagirathi is India’s tallest dam (260 m).

Project Tiger (Important Facts)

When was Project Tiger launched? ➤ 1st April 1973
First Tiger Reserve in India: ➤Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve (Uttarakhand)
Largest Tiger Reserve in India: ➤ Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh)
Area of Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam TR: ➤ 3,728.10 sq km

Important Colour Revolutions in India

Green Revolution: Food grains (mainly Wheat & Rice)
White Revolution: Milk production (Operation Flood)
Blue Revolution: Fish production
Yellow Revolution: Oilseeds
Silver Revolution: Eggs/Poultry
Pink Revolution: Meat / Onion / Prawn
Golden Revolution: Horticulture & Honey
Grey Revolution: Fertilizers
Black Revolution: Petroleum / Crude oil
Brown Revolution: Leather / Cocoa / Non-conventional energy
Round Revolution: Potato
Red Revolution: Meat and Tomato production
Purple Revolution: Lavender cultivation (Aroma Mission)
Golden Fiber Revolution: Jute production

India’s Land Border with Neighbouring Countries

Total Land Border Length of India: ➤ 15,106.7 km
Neighbouring Countries & Their Border Lengths with India:
Bangladesh: 4,096.7 km
China: 3,488 km
Pakistan: 3,323 km
Nepal: 1,751 km
Myanmar: 1,643 km
Bhutan: 699 km
Afghanistan: 106 km (in POK area)

Tiger Reserve State Year Area (sq km

Corbett TR - Uttarakhand 1973–74 1288.31
Kanha TR - Madhya Pradesh 1973–74 2051.79
Bandipur TR - Karnataka 1973–74 912.04
Sundarbans TR - West Bengal 1973–74 2584.89
Melghat TR - Maharashtra 1973–74 2768.52
Similipal TR - Odisha 1973–74 2750.00
Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam TR - Andhra Pradesh 1983–84 3728.10
Periyar TR - Kerala 1978–79 925.00
Manas TR - Assam 1973–74 3150.92
Namdapha TR - Arunachal Pradesh 1983–84 2052.82

Other Important Facts

India’s Longest International Border: ➤ With Bangladesh (4,096.7 km)
India’s Shortest International Border: ➤ With Afghanistan (106 km)
Project Tiger Headquarters: ➤ National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), New Delhi
“India’s first atomic power station established in 1969 – Tarapur, Maharashtra”

Project Tiger & Wildlife Facts

When was Project Tiger started? ➤ 1 April 1973
Which is India’s first Tiger Reserve? ➤ Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve (Uttarakhand)
Which Tiger Reserve has the largest area in India ➤ Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh) – 3,728.10 sq km
Which Tiger Reserve is located in Kerala? ➤ Periyar Tiger Reserve
Which Tiger Reserve is located in West Bengal? ➤ Sundarbans Tiger Reserve
Which Tiger Reserve is in Madhya Pradesh known for high tiger density? ➤ Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve
Which Tiger Reserve is in Odisha? ➤ Similipal Tiger Reserve
Which Tiger Reserve is in Assam and also a UNESCO World Heritage Site? ➤ Manas Tiger Reserve
Which Tiger Reserve is famous for lions? ➤ Gir (Note: Not part of Project Tiger; only for Asiatic Lions)

India’s International Borders

Total land border length of India: 15,106.7 km
Longest border shared with: Bangladesh (4,096.7 km)
Second longest border: China (3,488 km)
Third longest border: Pakistan (3,323 km)
Border with Nepal: 1,751 km
Border with Myanmar: 1,643 km
Border with Bhutan: 699 km
Shortest border: Afghanistan (106 km – via PoK)
State sharing border with 5 countries: Arunachal Pradesh
State sharing border with Bangladesh & Myanmar: Tripura & Mizoram

Miscellaneous

India’s first atomic power station: Tarapur Atomic Power Station (Maharashtra, 1969)
Tarapur was established with help from: USA
NTCA stands for: National Tiger Conservation Authority
Headquarters of NTCA: New Delhi
Tiger is the National Animal of India.
Largest mangrove forest in the world: Sundarbans
Sundarbans shared by: India and Bangladesh
Which mission is linked to Lavender farming? → Aroma Mission
Which revolution is associated with fertilizers? → Grey Revolution
Which revolution is related to jute production? → Golden Fibre Revolution
Which revolution is associated with meat and tomato? → Red Revolution
Which revolution boosted dairy products? → White Revolution (Operation Flood)
Which revolution is linked to solar energy & farmers’ welfare? → Golden Revolution (broadly linked)
India shares maritime borders with how many countries? → 7 (including Sri Lanka & Maldives)

Geography – Rivers & Cities

London is situated on which river? ➤ River Thames
Paris is situated on which river? ➤ River Seine
New York is situated on which river? ➤ River Hudson
Rome is situated on which river? ➤ River Tiber
Vienna is situated on which river ➤ River Danube
Cairo is situated on which river ➤ River Nile
Baghdad is situated on which river? ➤ River Tigris
Berlin is situated on which river? ➤ River Spree
Moscow is situated on which river? ➤ River Moskva
Budapest is situated on which river? ➤ River Danube
Washington D.C. is situated on which river? ➤ River Potomac
Tokyo is situated on which river? ➤ River Sumida

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

Great Pyramid of Giza – Egypt
Hanging Gardens – Babylon (Iraq)
Statue of Zeus – Olympia (Greece)
Temple of Artemis – Ephesus (Turkey)
Mausoleum – Halicarnassus (Turkey)
Colossus – Rhodes (Greece)
Lighthouse – Alexandria (Egypt)

Important Tiger Reserves

Kamlang Tiger Reserve – Only Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
Orang Tiger Reserve – Known as Mini Kaziranga, located in Assam.
Manas Tiger Reserve – Established in 1973; UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Pench Tiger Reserve – Located in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra (spreads over both states).

Classification of Agriculture (World Basis)

Commercial Grain Farming → USA, Canada, Ukraine, Argentina
Subsistence Agriculture → India, China, Southeast Asia
Dairy Farming → New Zealand, Denmark, Netherlands
Mediterranean Agriculture → Italy, Spain, California, Chile
Plantation Agriculture → India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia
Nomadic Herding → Sahara, Central Asia, Mongolia

World’s Important Physical Features & Facts

Longest River in the World: Nile River
Largest Desert: Sahara (Africa)
Highest Peak: Mount Everest (8,848 m)
Largest Ocean: Pacific Ocean
Largest Peninsula: Arabian Peninsula
Largest Island: Greenland
Largest Delta: Sunderban Delta (Ganga–Brahmaputra)
Largest Plateau: Tibetan Plateau

Miscellaneous Notes

Largest Peninsula of India: Deccan Plateau (also known as Dakshin Ganga)
Manas TR – UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985)
Kaziranga TR – famous for One-Horned Rhinoceros
Achanakmar–Amarkantak TR – in Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh
India’s first biosphere reserve: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (1986)

Cities on the Banks of Rivers

London – River Thames
Paris – River Seine
New York – River Hudson
Rome – River Tiber
Vienna – River Danube
Budapest – River Danube
Cairo – River Nile
Baghdad – River Tigris
Moscow – River Moskva
Berlin – River Spree
Washington D.C. – River Potomac
Tokyo – River Sumida
Yangon (Rangoon) – River Irrawaddy
Bangkok – River Chao Phraya
Shanghai – River Yangtze (Chang Jiang)
Karachi – River Lyari
Basel (Switzerland) – River Rhine
Bristol (UK) – River Avon
Nanking (China) – River Yangtze
Warsaw (Poland) – River Vistula

Important Peninsulas and Plateaus

Largest Peninsula in the World → Arabian Peninsula
Largest Peninsula in India → Deccan Plateau (also called Dakshin Ganga)
Deccan Plateau is formed by → Lava deposition (Basaltic origin)
Tibetan Plateau is known as → “Roof of the World”

Only Great Pyramid of Giza exists today among the Seven Wonders.

World’s Important Minerals & Producers

Largest producer of Coal → China
Largest producer of Petroleum → Saudi Arabia
Largest producer of Natural Gas → USA
Largest producer of Iron Ore → China
Largest producer of Bauxite → Australia
Largest producer of Copper → Chile
Largest producer of Gold → China
Largest producer of Silver → Mexico
Largest producer of Tin → China
Largest producer of Zinc → China
Largest producer of Nickel → Indonesia
Largest producer of Manganese → South Africa

World’s Manufacturing & Industrial Centres

World’s largest cotton textile producer → China
Largest wool producer → Australia
Largest silk producer → China
Largest jute producer → India
Largest iron & steel producer → China
Largest motor vehicle producer → USA
Largest shipbuilding countries → Japan, South Korea, China
Major automobile industries located in → USA, Japan, Germany
Major aircraft manufacturing nations → USA, France, Russia

Agriculture System in the World

Commercial Grain Farming → USA, Canada, Ukraine
Subsistence Agriculture → India, China, Southeast Asia
Dairy Farming → New Zealand, Denmark, Netherlands
Mediterranean Agriculture → Italy, Spain, California, Chile
Plantation Agriculture → India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia
Nomadic Herding → Sahara, Central Asia, Mongolia
Shifting Cultivation → Northeastern India, Indonesia, Congo Basin
Mixed Farming → Europe and North America

World Geography

Largest Desert in the world → Sahara (Africa)
Coldest Desert → Antarctica
Largest Delta → Sunderban Delta (Ganga–Brahmaputra)
Largest Island → Greenland
Largest Ocean → Pacific Ocean
Largest Plateau → Tibetan Plateau
Longest River → Nile River (Africa)
Second Longest River → Amazon (South America)
Deepest Ocean → Pacific Ocean (Mariana Trench)
Highest Peak → Mount Everest (8848.86 m)
Tallest Mountain Range → Himalayas
Longest Mountain Range → Andes (South America)
World’s smallest ocean → Arctic Ocean
Dead Sea lies between → Israel and Jordan
World’s largest freshwater lake → Lake Superior (North America)

Town / City Famous for / Industry Type

Sheffield (UK) - Iron and Steel Industry
Manchester (UK) - Cotton Textiles
Birmingham (UK) - Engineering Goods
Leeds (UK) - Woollen Textiles
Bradford (UK) - Woollen Textiles
Liverpool (UK) - Shipbuilding, Port
London (UK) - Various industries, Finance, Trade
Glasgow (Scotland) - Shipbuilding
Detroit (USA) - Motor Vehicles (Automobile Industry)
Pittsburgh (USA) - Iron and Steel Industry
Chicago (USA) - Meat Processing Industry
New York (USA) - Trade and Commerce
San Francisco (USA) - Electronics and IT
Hollywood (USA) - Film Industry
Los Angeles (USA) - Film, Electronics, and Space Technology
Tokyo (Japan) - Electronics, Automobiles
Osaka (Japan) - Textiles, Machinery
Kobe (Japan) - Shipbuilding
Nagoya (Japan) - Motor Vehicles
Yokohama (Japan) - Shipbuilding, Trade
Berlin (Germany) - Machinery, Chemicals
Hamburg (Germany) - Shipbuilding
Munich (Germany) - Electrical Goods, Automobiles
Frankfurt (Germany) - Finance, Chemicals
Lyon (France) - Silk Industry
Marseilles (France) - Shipbuilding, Port
Zurich (Switzerland) - Watches, Banking
Geneva (Switzerland) - Watches, Pharmaceuticals
Milan (Italy) - Textiles, Fashion, Automobiles
Turin (Italy) - Automobiles (Fiat)
Venice (Italy) - Tourism, Shipbuilding
Barcelona (Spain) - Textiles, Machinery
Madrid (Spain) - Administration, Trade
Brussels (Belgium) - Lace Industry, Diamond Polishing
Antwerp (Belgium) - Diamond Cutting and Trade
Moscow (Russia) - Engineering, Machinery
St. Petersburg (Russia) - Shipbuilding, Engineering
Calgary (Canada) - Petroleum
Vancouver (Canada) - Shipbuilding
Toronto (Canada) - Finance, Commerce
Mexico City (Mexico) - Automobiles, Textiles
São Paulo (Brazil) - Automobiles, Coffee Processing
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) - Shipbuilding, Tourism
Johannesburg (South Africa) - Gold and Diamond Mining
Cape Town (South Africa) - Wine, Food Processing, Tourism
Sydney (Australia) - Machinery, Iron and Steel
Melbourne (Australia) - Textiles, Food Processing
Adelaide (Australia) - Motor Vehicles, Food Processing

Important Notes

Saharan Desert → Located in North Africa; world’s largest hot desert
Madagascar → Largest island of the Indian Ocean.
Malwa Plateau → Located in Madhya Pradesh.
Deccan Plateau → Largest plateau in India (Basaltic origin).
Tibetan Plateau → Known as Roof of the World.
India is popularly known as → “Land of Spices, Silk, and Gold.”
Manas Tiger Reserve → UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985).
Kamlang TR → Only Tiger Reserve of Arunachal Pradesh.
Kaziranga → Known for One-horned Rhinoceros.
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve → First Biosphere Reserve of India (1986).

World GK (Industries & Locations Quick Facts)

Pittsburgh → Iron and Steel Capital of the USA.
Detroit → Motor City (Automobile hub of the world).
Manchester → Cottonopolis / Cotton Textile City (UK).
Sheffield → City of Steel (UK).
Hollywood → Film City of the World (USA).
Lyon (France) → Silk City.
Osaka (Japan) → Manchester of Japan (Textiles).
Tokyo → Electronics Capital of the World.
Zurich → Banking Capital of the World.
Antwerp → Diamond City of the World.
Johannesburg → Gold City.
Venice → City of Canals (Italy).
Geneva → Headquarters of many international organizations (UNO agencies).

Towns Associated with Important Industries (India & World)

Manchester (UK) – Cotton Textile Industry
Lancashire (England) – Cotton Textiles
Birmingham (UK) – Iron and Steel, Engineering Goods
Sheffield (UK) – Cutlery and Iron Goods
Detroit (USA) – Automobile Industry
Pittsburgh (USA) – Iron and Steel Industries
Hollywood (USA) – Film Industries
Buffalo (USA) – Engineering Goods
Silicon Valley (USA) – Electronics and Software
Chicago (USA) – Meat Packing Industry
New York (USA) – Financial Center
Leeds (UK) – Woolen Textiles
Bradford (UK) – Woolen Textiles
Tokyo (Japan) – Electronics and Automobiles
Osaka (Japan) – Textile Industry
Kobe (Japan) – Shipbuilding and Engineering
Manchester of Japan – Osaka
Bremen (Germany) – Shipbuilding
Frankfurt (Germany) – Engineering and Automobiles
Munich (Germany) – Manufacturing Industries
Lyon (France) – Silk and Textile
Milan (Italy) – Fashion, Textile and Automobiles
Turin (Italy) – Automobile Industry
Glasgow (Scotland) – Shipbuilding and Heavy Engineering

Indian Industrial Towns

Kanpur (U.P.) – Leather and Textile Industry
Ahmedabad (Gujarat) – Cotton Textile Industry
Surat (Gujarat) – Diamond Cutting and Textile
Jamshedpur (Jharkhand) – Iron and Steel Industry
Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) – Steel Plant
Rourkela (Odisha) – Iron and Steel Plant
Bokaro (Jharkhand) – Iron and Steel Industry
Durgapur (West Bengal) – Steel Plant
Chandigarh – Small Scale Industries
Ludhiana (Punjab) – Woolen and Hosiery Goods
Amritsar (Punjab) – Silk and Textiles
Panipat (Haryana) – Handloom and Textile Industry
Faridabad (Haryana) – Engineering Goods
Noida (U.P.) – Electronics and Software
Gurugram (Haryana) – Automobile and IT Hub
Pune (Maharashtra) – Automobile and Engineering
Mumbai (Maharashtra) – Textile, Chemical and Financial Center
Bangalore (Karnataka) – Electronics and IT
Hyderabad (Telangana) – Information Technology
Chennai (Tamil Nadu) – Automobile and Textiles
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) – Textile and Engineering Goods
Madurai (Tamil Nadu) – Handloom Industry

Miscellaneous One-Liners

Saharan Desert – Located in North Africa
Madagascar – Largest island of Africa
Khasi Plateau – Located in Meghalaya
Chotanagpur Plateau – Famous for minerals (Jharkhand)
Manchester of South India – Coimbatore
Silicon Valley of India – Bangalore
Pittsburgh of India – Jamshedpur
Manchester of India – Ahmedabad
City of Lakes – Udaipur
Temple City of India – Bhubaneswar
City of Joy – Kolkata

Famous Sites in India

Palitana (Jain Temple) – Bhavnagar (Gujarat)
Panch Mahal – Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh)
Pichola Lake – Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Prince of Wales Museum (Now: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya) – Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Qutub Minar – Delhi
Raj Ghat – Delhi (Mahatma Gandhi Memorial)
Rashtrapati Bhawan – Delhi
Red Fort – Delhi
Jantar Mantar – New Delhi
Kailash Temple – Ellora (Maharashtra)
Kanyakumari Temple – Tamil Nadu
Kirti Stambh (Victory Tower) – Chittorgarh (Rajasthan)
Lal Bagh Botanical Garden – Bengaluru (Karnataka)
Lingaraj Temple – Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
Mahakaleshwar Temple – Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh)
Mahabaleshwar Cave – Maharashtra
Malabar Hills – Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Marina Beach – Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Sidi Sayyed Mosque – Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Shanti Stupa – Delhi
Statue of Gomateshwara – Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)
Sun Temple (Black Pagoda) – Konark (Odisha)
Taj Mahal – Agra (Uttar Pradesh)
Tower of Silence – Malabar Hill, Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Victoria Memorial – Kolkata (West Bengal)
Victoria Garden (Jijamata Udyan) – Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Vijay Ghat – Delhi

Old Name - New Name

Allahabad - Prayagraj
Mughalsarai Junction - Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay Junction
Faizabad District - Ayodhya District

Peak Height (m) Range

Mount Everest 8848 Himalayas
K2 (Godwin Austen) 8611 Himalayas
Kanchenjunga 8586 Himalayas
Lhotse 8516 Himalayas
Makalu 8481 Himalayas
Cho Oyu 8201 Himalayas
Dhaulagiri I 8167 Himalayas
Manaslu 8163 Himalayas
Nanga Parbat 8126 Himalayas
Annapurna I 8091 Himalayas

Three Deepest Oceans & Their Deepest Points

Pacific Ocean 11,034 m - Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench
Atlantic Ocean 8,605 m - Milwaukee Depth, Puerto Rico Trench
Indian Ocean 7,450 m - Sunda Deep, Java Trench

Strait Connects

Malacca Strait - Andaman Sea & South China Sea (Between Indonesia and Malaysia)
Palk Strait - Bay of Bengal & Gulf of Mannar (Between India and Sri Lanka)
Sunda Strait - Java Sea & Indian Ocean (Indonesia)
Yucatan Strait - Gulf of Mexico & Caribbean Sea

Most Expected One-Liners for Exams

Challenger Deep (Mariana Trench) – Deepest point in the world.
Mount Everest – Highest mountain peak in the world (8848 m).
Statue of Liberty – Located in New York, USA.
Eiffel Tower – Located in Paris, France.
Big Ben – Famous clock tower in London, UK.
Kremlin – Located in Moscow, Russia.
Kaaba – Located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Taj Mahal – Built by Shah Jahan in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, Agra.
Lal Bagh Botanical Garden – Located in Bengaluru.
Palk Strait – Separates India and Sri Lanka.

Major Straits & Channels of the World

Messina Strait – Connects Mediterranean Sea and Ionian Sea (Between Italy–Sicily).
Otranto Strait – Connects Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea (Between Italy–Albania).
Bab-el-Mandeb Strait – Connects Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Between Yemen–Djibouti).
Cook Strait – Connects Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sea (Between North & South Island, New Zealand).
Mozambique Channel – Connects Indian Ocean (Between Mozambique–Madagascar).
Dover Strait – Connects English Channel and North Sea (Between England–France).
Bass Strait – Connects Tasman Sea and Southern Sea (Between Australia–Tasmania).
Bering Strait – Connects Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea (Between Alaska–Russia).
Dardanelles Strait – Connects Mediterranean Sea and Aegean Sea (Turkey).
Gibraltar Strait – Connects Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean (Between Spain–Morocco).
Davis Strait – Connects Baffin Bay and Atlantic Ocean (Between Greenland–Canada).
Denmark Strait – Connects North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean (Between Greenland–Iceland).
Florida Strait – Connects Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean (Between USA–Cuba).
Hudson Strait – Connects Hudson Bay and Atlantic Ocean (Canada).
Magellan Strait – Connects Pacific Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean (Chile, South America).
Makassar Strait – Connects Java Sea and Celebes Sea (Indonesia).
Tartar Strait – Between Russia (Sakhalin Island) and Mainland Russia.
Formosa Strait – Between China and Taiwan (Connects East & South China Seas).
Luzon Strait – Between Taiwan and Philippines (Connects South & East China Seas).
Korea Strait – Between Japan and Korean Peninsula (Connects East China Sea & Sea of Japan).
Karimata Strait – Between Sumatra and Borneo (Connects South China Sea & Java Sea).
Tsushima Strait – Between Japan and Korea (Connects Japan Sea & East China Sea).
Sunda Strait – Between Java and Sumatra (Connects Java Sea & Indian Ocean).
Bering-Foso Strait – Between Russia and Alaska.
Tokra Strait – Connects East China Sea & Pacific Ocean.
Belle Isle Strait – Separates Labrador Peninsula and Newfoundland (Canada).

Strait Separates - Oceans/Seas

Bering Strait - Russia & USA (Alaska) - Arctic Ocean & Bering Sea
Gibraltar Strait - Europe & Africa - Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean
Dover Strait - Great Britain & France - English Channel & North Sea
Malacca Strait - Malay Peninsula & Sumatra (Indonesia) - Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal) & Pacific Ocean
Florida Strait - USA (Florida) & Cuba - Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean
Palk Strait - India & Sri Lanka - Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea

Important Geographical Discoveries (World)

Roald Amundsen (Norway) – First person to reach South Pole (14 December 1911).
Robert Peary (America) – First person to reach Geographical North Pole (6 April 1909).
Christopher Columbus (Italy/Spain) – Discovered West Indies & America (1492).
John Cabot (Italy/England) – Discovered Newfoundland (1497) & Coast of North America.
Captain James Cook (England) – Discovered Hawaiian Islands (1778).
Nicolaus Copernicus (Poland) – Established Heliocentric theory (Earth revolves around Sun, 1540).
Ferdinand de Lesseps (France) – Developer of Suez Canal (1869).
Johannes Kepler (Germany) – Discovered Three Laws of Planetary Motion (1609–1619).
Charles Lindbergh (USA) – First solo non-stop transatlantic flight (1927).
Vasco da Gama (Portugal) – First European to reach India by sea via Cape of Good Hope; arrived at Calicut (Kozhikode) in May 1498.
Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) – First European to reach Cape of Good Hope (1488).
Fridtjof Nansen (Norway) – Explored Greenland & North Pole (1888).
Ferdinand Magellan (Portugal) – First person to circumnavigate the globe (1519–1522).
Abel Tasman (Dutch) – Discovered Tasmania & New Zealand (1644).
Jacques Cartier (France) – Explored Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada (1534–1542).
Hernan Cortes (Spain) – Discovered Mexico (1519).

Most Expected One-Liners for Exams

Deepest strait of the world: Gibraltar Strait.
Narrowest strait: Bering Strait (85 km wide).
Bering Strait separates: Russia and USA (Alaska).
Gibraltar Strait separates: Europe and Africa.
Malacca Strait connects: Bay of Bengal & South China Sea.
Florida Strait connects: Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean.
Palk Strait separates: India and Sri Lanka.
Magellan Strait connects: Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
Dover Strait connects: English Channel & North Sea.
Mozambique Channel lies between: Mozambique & Madagascar.
Vasco da Gama reached India in: 1498 at Calicut.
Christopher Columbus discovered America in: 1492.
Ferdinand Magellan first circumnavigated the globe in: 1519–1522.
Copernicus proposed the: Heliocentric Theory.
Kepler discovered: Laws of Planetary Motion.
Ferdinand de Lesseps developed: Suez Canal (1869).
Charles Lindbergh’s plane: Spirit of St. Louis (1927).
Robert Peary reached North Pole in: 1909.
Roald Amundsen reached South Pole in: 1911.
Bartolomeu Dias discovered: Cape of Good Hope (1488).

Major Canals of the World

Soo Locks Canal – Connects Lake Huron and Lake Superior (USA).
Erie Canal – Connects Lake Erie and Lake Michigan (USA).
Gota Canal – Connects Lake Vanern with the Baltic Sea (Sweden).
Kiel Canal – Connects River Elbe to the Baltic Sea (Germany).
North Sea Canal – Connects Amsterdam and Ijmuiden on the North Sea (Netherlands).
Manchester Canal – Connects Manchester to the Irish Sea (England).
New Waterway Canal – Connects Rotterdam to the North Sea (Netherlands).
Volga–Don Canal – Connects Volga River with Don River (Russia).
Welland Canal – Connects Lake Ontario and Lake Erie (Canada).
K.P. Canal – Connects Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (India).
Suez Canal – Connects Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea (Egypt).
Panama Canal – Connects Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) and Pacific Ocean (Panama).
Albert Canal – Connects Albert Canal River Meuse with Scheldt River (Western Europe).

Major Waterfalls of the World

Angel Falls – Venezuela – 979 metres (highest waterfall in the world).
Yosemite Falls – California, USA – 740 metres.
Tugela Falls – South Africa – 947 metres.
Kukenam Falls – Venezuela – 610 metres.
Victoria Falls – Zambia–Zimbabwe – 108 metres.
Sutherland Falls – New Zealand – 580 metres.
Ribbon Falls – California – 491 metres.
Kaieteur Falls – Guyana – 251 metres.
Niagara Falls – North America – 57 metres.
Della Falls – Canada – 440 metres.
Gavarnie Falls – France – 425 metres.
Jog Falls – India – 253 metres (famous Indian waterfall).

Major Lakes of the World

Caspian Sea – Largest lake; located in Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Iran – 3,71,000 km².
Superior – USA and Canada – 82,414 km².
Victoria – Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania – 69,484 km².
Aral Sea – Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan – 66,457 km².
Huron – USA and Canada – 59,600 km².
Michigan – USA – 58,016 km².
Tanganyika – Tanganyika, Zambia, Zaire – 32,893 km².
Baikal – Russia – 31,722 km².

Major Islands of the World

Greenland – Largest island; situated in the Antarctic Ocean.
New Guinea – Situated in the Western Pacific Ocean.
Borneo – Situated in the Indian Ocean.
Madagascar – Situated in the Indian Ocean.
Baffin Island – Situated in the North Arctic Ocean.
Sumatra – Southeastern Indian Ocean.
Honshu (Japan) – North East Pacific Ocean.
Great Britain – North Atlantic Ocean.
Victoria Island (Canada) – Arctic Ocean.
Ellesmere Island (Canada) – Arctic Ocean.
Sulawesi (Indonesia) – Indian Ocean.
South Island (New Zealand) – South West Pacific Ocean.
Java Island (Indonesia) – Indian Ocean.
North Island (New Zealand) – South West Pacific Ocean.
Cuba – Caribbean Sea.
Luzon Island – Surrounded by Philippine Sea, South China Sea, Sibuyan Sea (Pacific Ocean).
Iceland – Atlantic Ocean.
Ireland – North Atlantic Ocean.
Tasmania – Surrounded by Indian and Pacific Ocean.
Sri Lanka – Indian Ocean.

Note: Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world.

Deserts and Their Locations

Sahara Desert – Northern Africa (largest desert in the world).
Australian Desert – Great Sandy, Great Victoria, Simpson Deserts.
Arabian Desert – Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman.
Gobi Desert – Mongolia and China.
Patagonian Desert – Argentina.
Kalahari Desert – Botswana (Middle Africa).
Taklamakan Desert – Xinjiang (China).
Mojave Desert – South California (USA).
Atacama Desert – North Chile (South America); Driest desert in the world.
Namib Desert – South Africa (Namibia); near Benguela Current.
Karakum Desert – Turkmenistan.
Kyzyl Kum Desert – Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan.
Dasht-e-Lut Desert – Eastern Iran.
Sonoran Desert – Arizona & California (USA and Mexico).

Top 10 Countries with Largest Aquatic Area

Canada – 8,91,163 sq. km (1st).
Russia – 7,20,500 sq. km.
USA – 4,10,131 sq. km.
Indonesia – 3,21,210 sq. km.
China – 1,37,060 sq. km.

Top Countries with Longest Coastline

Canada – 2,02,080 km (Longest coastline in the world).
Norway – 58,133 km.
Indonesia – 54,716 km.
Russia – 37,653 km.
Philippines – 36,289 km.
India – 10th place (7,500 km total coastline).

Geographical Epithets (Nicknames of Places)

Blue Mountains – Nilgiri Hills (India).
City of Sky Scrapers – New York, USA.
City of Dreaming Spires – Oxford, England.
City of Golden Gate – San Francisco, USA.
Cockpit of Europe – Belgium.
Land of Cakes – Scotland.
Dark Continent – Africa.
Land of Rising Sun – Japan.
Land of Thousand Lakes – Finland.
Land of Thunderbolt – Bhutan.
Land of Midnight Sun – Norway.
Land of White Elephant – Thailand.
Land of Morning Calm – Korea.
Granite City – Aberdeen, Scotland.
Pearl of the Orient – Philippines.
Island of Cloves – Zanzibar.
Queen of the Adriatic – Venice, Italy.
Windy City – Chicago, USA.
Yellow River – China (Hwang Ho).
City of Seven Hills – Rome, Italy.
Forbidden City – Beijing, China.

Important International Boundary Lines

Durand Line – Between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
17th Parallel – Between North & South Vietnam (former).
38th Parallel – Between North and South Korea.
49th Parallel – Between USA and Canada.
McMahon Line – Between India and Tibet (China).
Radcliffe Line – Between India and Pakistan.
24th Parallel – Line claimed by Pakistan (between India and Pakistan).
Maginot Line – Between France and Germany.
Oder-Neisse Line – Between Germany and Poland.

Important Tribes and Their Homeland (World)

Eskimos – Greenland, North Canada, Alaska.
Pygmies – Congo Basin (Central Africa).
Bushmen – Kalahari Desert (Botswana, Namibia).
Ainus – Japan, Russia.
Bedouins – Arabian Desert & Middle East.
Maoris – New Zealand.
Bantus – Central & South-East Africa.
Lapps (Sami) – Northern Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway).
Red Indians – North America.
Bindibu (Aborigines) – Australia.
Yakuts – Siberia.
Zulus – South Africa.
Masai – Kenya & Tanzania (East Africa).
Patagons – Argentina.
Kalmuks – Siberia, Central Asia.
Guicas – Amazon Forest Area.
Semangs – Malaysia.
Kyrgyz – Kyrgyzstan (Central Asia).

World’s Important Tribes

Vedda Tribe – Found in Sri Lanka.
Yukaghir Tribe – Found in Siberia.
Ainu Tribe – Found in Japan.
Bororo Tribe – Found in Brazil.
Bedouin Tribe – Found in Arabia.
Papua Tribe – Found in New Guinea.
Inkatha Tribe – Found in South Africa.

Habitat of Some Important Tribes

Aul – Fortified village in the Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia.
Igloo – Snow house used by Inuit and Eskimo people of Canada and Greenland.
Izba – Traditional countryside house in Russia.
Kraal – Enclosure for cattle in Southern Africa, associated with Zulu tribes.
Tepee / Tipi – Tent used by North American Plains tribes.
Yurt – Portable round tent used by nomadic groups in Central Asia (Mongolia, Kazakhstan).

Land-Locked Countries of the World

In Asia

Afghanistan
Mongolia
Laos
Azerbaijan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Bhutan
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Nepal

In Europe

Switzerland
Hungary
Macedonia
Serbia
Vatican City
Andorra
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Belarus
Austria
Czech Republic

In Africa

Botswana
Burundi
Chad
Lesotho
Malawi
Mali
Niger
Zambia
Uganda
Rwanda
Burkina Faso
Swaziland (now Eswatini)

In South America

Bolivia and Paraguay

Indian States with Longest Border (with Neighboring Countries)

Bangladesh – West Bengal has the longest border.
China – Ladakh has the longest border.
Pakistan – Jammu & Kashmir (now UT) has the longest border.
Nepal – Uttar Pradesh has the longest border.
Myanmar – Mizoram has the longest border.
Bhutan – Assam has the longest border.
Afghanistan – Ladakh shares border (now UT).

Important World Places and Their Significance

Billingsgate (England) – Famous fish market in London.
Statue of Liberty (USA) – Gift from France; symbol of freedom located in New York Harbor.
Red Square (Russia) – Located in Moscow; site of Lenin’s Mausoleum.
Elysée Palace (France) – Residence of the President of France.
Cannes (France) – Famous for the International Film Festival.
Pentagon (USA) – Headquarters of the United States Department of Defense.
Disneyland (USA) – Located in Los Angeles, California; opened in 1955.
Auroville (India) – Located in Tamil Nadu; symbol of universal harmony and unity.
White Sands (USA) – Site of first nuclear test “Trinity” on July 16, 1945, under the Manhattan Project.

Map Lines (Cartography Terms)

Isohyet – Line joining places of equal rainfall.
Isotherm – Line joining places of equal temperature.
Isobar – Line joining places of equal pressure.
Isohaline – Line joining points of equal salinity in the ocean.
Isobath – Line joining points of equal depth below sea.
Isoheight (Contour line) – Line joining equal elevation points.
Isochrome – Line joining places with equal duration of sunshine.
Isoneph – Line joining places with equal cloudiness.
Isopleth – General term for any line joining points of equal value of a geographical element.

Major Waterfalls of India

Waterfall - Height (m) - River State

Gokak Falls - 55 - Ghataprabha Karnataka

Shivasamudram Falls - 90 - Kaveri Karnataka

Jog (Gersoppa/Mahatma Gandhi) Falls - 253 - Sharavathi Karnataka

Kunchikal Falls - 455 - Varahi Karnataka

Hogenakkal Falls - 20 - Kaveri Tamil Nadu

Chitrakote Falls - 30 - Indravati Chhattisgarh

Kapildhara Falls - 23 - Narmada Madhya Pradesh

Gautamdhara / Jonha Falls - 43 - Subarnarekha River

Sadni Falls — Sankh River

Hundru Falls - 98 - Subarnarekha River

Major Lakes of India

Jammu & Kashmir

Wular Lake – Largest freshwater lake in India; formed by Jhelum River.
Dal Lake – Famous for houseboats and tourism.

Rajasthan

Sambhar Lake – Largest inland salt lake in India.
Pushkar Lake – Sacred lake near Ajmer.
Pichola Lake – Located in Udaipur (artificial).
Jaisamand Lake – Second largest artificial lake in Asia.

Madhya Pradesh

Dhebar Lake (Jaisamand) – Artificial lake on the Gomti River.
Gandhi Sagar Lake – Man-made on Chambal River.
Tawa Reservoir – In Hoshangabad district, on Tawa River.

Gujarat

Ukai Lake – Man-made on Tapti River.

Manipur

Loktak Lake – Largest freshwater lake in North-East India; famous for Phumdis (floating islands); Keibul Lamjao National Park located here.

Odisha

Chilika Lake – Largest saltwater lagoon in India; famous for migratory birds and Nalaban Bird Sanctuary.

Andhra Pradesh

Kolleru Lake – Freshwater lake between Krishna and Godavari deltas.
Pulicat Lake – Lagoon lake; 2nd largest in India; Sriharikota Space Centre located on its shore.

Kerala

Vembanad Lake – Largest backwater lake in India; venue for Nehru Trophy Boat Race.
Ashtamudi Lake – Known for its eight arms; important backwater tourist spot.
Sasthamkotta Lake – Largest freshwater lake in Kerala.

Maharashtra

Lonar Lake – Crater lake formed by meteor impact; saline in nature.

Telangana

Hussain Sagar Lake – Artificial lake between Hyderabad and Secunderabad; famous for Buddha statue in the middle.

Himachal Pradesh

Renuka Lake – Named after Goddess Renuka; largest natural lake in Himachal Pradesh.

Uttarakhand

Roopkund Lake – Famous Skeleton Lake (human skeletons found).
Bhimtal Lake – Natural freshwater lake near Nainital.

Sikkim

Cholamu Lake (Tso Lhamo) – Highest lake in India (5,330 m).
Lake Tsomgo (Changu) – Near Gangtok; glacial lake, tourist spot.

Other Important Lakes

Sala Lake – Arunachal Pradesh.
Badkhal Lake – Haryana; near Faridabad.
Kaliveli Lake – Tamil Nadu; coastal lagoon near Villupuram.
Chembarambakkam Lake – Tamil Nadu; main drinking water source for Chennai.
Bakhira Lake – Uttar Pradesh; large wetland bird sanctuary.

State / UT Coastline (km)

Andhra Pradesh 974
Goa 104
Gujarat 1600
Karnataka 300
Kerala 590
Maharashtra 720
Odisha 480
Tamil Nadu 906
West Bengal 158
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 1962
Daman & Diu 27
Lakshadweep 132
Puducherry 45

Total coastline of India: 8118 km

Most Expected One-liner Questions

Largest freshwater lake in India – Wular Lake (J&K)
Largest saltwater lake in India – Chilika Lake (Odisha)
Largest lagoon in India – Chilika Lake
Largest artificial lake in Asia – Jaisamand Lake (Rajasthan)
Highest lake in India – Cholamu Lake (Sikkim)
Largest freshwater lake in North-East India – Loktak Lake (Manipur)
Crater lake in India – Lonar Lake (Maharashtra)
Lake between Hyderabad & Secunderabad – Hussain Sagar (Telangana)
Largest backwater lake in Kerala – Vembanad Lake
Skeleton lake – Roopkund (Uttarakhand)

Important Geography One-Liners

Iceberg – A mass of land ice broken off from a glacier and floating in the sea.
Insolation – Energy radiated from the sun received by the earth.
Karst region or Karstland – Limestone region in which most drainage is underground.
Katabatic wind – Local wind caused by the flow of air down mountain slopes and valleys.
Lagoon – Part of the sea cut off by sandbars or reefs (e.g. Chilika Lake in Odisha).
Latitude – Angular distance of a point north or south of the equator.
Leeward – The side or direction sheltered from the wind.
Lithophyte – A plant that grows on bare rock or stone.
Loess – Deposit of fine silt or dust, generally wind-blown.
Magnitude – Large irregular variations or tremors in the earth’s magnetic field.
Meridian – Line of longitude passing through the poles and cutting the equator at right angles.
Mesophyte – Plant requiring a moderate amount of moisture.
Monsoon – Type of wind system with seasonal reversal of direction.
Moraine – Debris or fragments of rock material brought down by a glacier.
Nivation – Erosion due to the action of snow.
Nomadism – Movement of people in search of food and shelter; people following this mode of life are called nomads.
Oasis – Area in the desert where water is available.
Ocean Current – Movement of surface water of the ocean.
Orographic rain – Rain caused by mountains standing in the path of moisture-laden winds.
Outwash plain – Alluvial plain formed by glacial meltwater streams.
Pampas – Mid-latitude grasslands of South America.
Pastoralism – Practice of breeding and rearing cattle.
Pedology – Science of the study of soils.
Pelagic – Belonging to the open sea.
Peninsula – A stretch of land almost surrounded by water.
Perigee – Point in the orbit of a planet or satellite nearest to the sun.
Permafrost – Ground that is permanently frozen.
Petrology – Study of the composition, structure, and history of rocks.
Phenology – Science dealing with seasonal changes upon animal and plant life.
Phytogeography – Study of distribution of plants on earth.
Piedmont – Land or region at the foot of mountains.
Planetary winds – General distribution of winds in the lower atmosphere due to earth’s rotation and pressure differences.
Planimeter – Instrument for measuring irregular plane areas on maps.
Plain – Extensive level or nearly level area of land.
Playa – Flat-bottom depression or dry lake found in desert basins.
Prairies – Mid-latitude grasslands of North America.
Precipitation – Falling water (in liquid or solid form) from the atmosphere.
Pressure gradient – Rate at which pressure decreases horizontally on the earth’s surface.
Psychrometer – Instrument used for measuring humidity.
Rain shadow – Area having less rainfall due to mountains blocking moist winds.
Reg – Rocky desert surface covered with stones.
Rhumb line or loxodrome – Line on a map cutting all meridians at the same angle.
Saprophyte – Plant that lives on decaying organic matter; most such plants are fungi.
Satellite – A relatively small body revolving around a planet.
Savanna – Tropical grassland with scattered trees.
Seismic focus or deep focus – Point below the earth’s surface where an earthquake originates.

General Geography Terms

Seismograph – Instrument used for measuring and recording earthquake shocks.
Seismology – Science of the study of earthquakes.
Selvas – Dense equatorial forests of the Amazon basin in South America.
Sleet – Precipitation consisting of a mixture of snow and rain.
Smog – Fog heavily laden with smoke.
Snowline – Lower limit of perpetual snow on mountains.
Soil Erosion – Wearing away of soil mainly by action of wind and water.
Solar Constant – Intensity of the sun’s radiation received at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.
Steppe – Mid-latitude grasslands of Eurasia.
Strait – Narrow stretch of sea connecting two extensive areas of sea.
Syncline – Trough or downward arch of folded rock strata.
Temperature Inversion – Condition where temperature increases with height instead of decreasing.
Taiga – Coniferous forest region of Siberia.
Thermograph – Self-recording thermometer.
Topographic Map – Map showing both natural and man-made features of the earth’s surface.
Tropophyte – Plant adapted to alternate wet and dry conditions.
Tsunami – A large sea wave caused by an earthquake or undersea volcanic activity.
Viticulture – The culture of grape vines.
Volcano – Vent in the earth’s crust through which molten rock and gases erupt.
Watershed – Elevated boundary separating drainage basins.
Weathering – Decay and disintegration of rocks due to atmospheric exposure.
Willy-Willy – Tropical cyclone in the Pacific near the east coast of Australia.
Xerophyte – Plant adapted to dry regions.
Yazoo River – Tributary prevented from joining the main river due to natural levees.
Zenith – Point in the celestial sphere vertically above one’s head.
Zodiac – Zone of heavens containing the paths of the sun, moon, and planets.

Miscellaneous and India-Specific Facts

Paradip Port – Located on the delta of Mahanadi River.
India’s Standard Time (IST) – Calculated from 82°30′E longitude passing through Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh).
Mugasilk – A variety of wild silk grown in Jharkhand.
Brahmaputra River – Second largest river of India (891 km in length within India).
Mawsynram – Located in Khasi hills of Meghalaya; wettest place on Earth.
Nilgiri Hills – Located at the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats.
Salal Project – Constructed on Chenab River in Jammu & Kashmir.
Daringbadi Hill Station – Located in Odisha.

Extreme Points of India

Easternmost Point – Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)

Westernmost Point – Ghuar Mota (Gujarat)

Northernmost Point (POK) – Indira Col (in Gilgit-Baltistan, under POK)

Southernmost Point – Indira Point (Great Nicobar Island)

Kolkata Port – Oldest operating port in India (established by British East India Company).
Kallanai Dam / Grand Anicut – Oldest dam in India (on the Cauvery River, Tamil Nadu).
Hemis National Park – Located in Ladakh; home of the snow leopard.
Telegraphic Plateau – Part of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Tropical Savanna Region – Known as the “Land of Big Game” or “Land of Safari.”
Moribund Delta – Delta in Bengal (Sundarbans region).
Denmark – Known as the country of wind.
India’s territorial limit – Extends up to 12 nautical miles from the coastline.
Pyrite – Known as Fool’s Gold.

Tribe State

Angami - Nagaland
Birhor (Birhul) - Jharkhand
Khasi - Meghalaya
Toda - Tamil Nadu