UPSC EPFO 2025 Polity & History Important Questions and Answers

Expected Topics for UPSC EPFO 2025 Polity and History Section

The Constituent Assembly became fully sovereign body by- Enactment of Indian Independence Act 1947.
The following Committees of the Indian Constituent Assembly headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru- States Committee, Union Powers Committee, Union constitution committee
Which of the following provisions of the Indian Constitution came into force from November 26, 1949 - Provisions relating to citizenship, Provisions relating to elections,Provisions relating to provisional Parliament

Rajkumari Amrit Kaur was the first woman to preside over a session of the Constituent Assembly.

The Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, and Tribal and Excluded Areas had at least one woman member

Which of the following Acts gave the Governor- General of India the power to issue ordinances -Indian Council Act - 1861
All restrictions on European immigration and acquisition of property were ended.
No Indian citizen was to be denied employment under the Company on the basis of religion, color, birth, descent and others.
The Preamble to the Constitution of India is- a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts
In the context of polity, which one of the following would you accept as the most appropriate definition of liberty? -Opportunity to develop oneself fully

The case of Government of India Vs LIC of India, 1995 the Supreme Court of India held that - Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution of India

Which of the following Union Territories is given partial statehood in India? -Puducherry

The architect of Chandigarh is Le Corbusier.

The first rock garden in India is established at Chandigarh.

The famous Romain Rolland library is located at Puducherry.

The French left Puducherry in 1954.

Puducherry became a union territory in 1962.

François Martin is considered as the father of Puducherry.

Puducherry is the first union territory in India to form a legislative assembly.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands - 1 November 1956
Chandigarh - 1 November 1966
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu -26 January 2020
Delhi 1 November 1956
Jammu and Kashmir -31 October 2019
Ladakh -31 October 2019
Lakshadweep - 1 November 1956
Puducherry - 1 Jul 1963

Under the Citizenship Act 1955, by which of the following ways can a person become a citizen of India?

a. By incorporation of territory

b. By descent

c. By birth

d. By naturalisation

e. By registration

Which among the following statements is correct regarding Parliament's power to reorganise the states under Article 3: increase the area of any state, diminish the area of any state, form a new state by separation of territory from any state
The Fundamental Rights guaranteed by Articles 15, 16, 19, 29, and 30 are available only to citizens of India

With reference to the Abolition of Untouchability, consider the following statements:

1) The term 'untouchability' has not been defined either in the Constitution or in the Act.

2) The Supreme Court held that the right under Article 17 is available against private individuals.

Habeas Corpus is the only writ that can be issued both against public authorities as well as private individuals.
Fundamental Rights can be amended by the Parliament only through a constitutional amendment act.
Any amendment to Fundamental Rights requires a special majority of Parliament along with the consent of two- third of the state legislatures
What is the position of the Right to Property in India - Legal right available to any person
In 1978, through the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, the Right to Property was removed as a Fundamental Right.
Article 31 was repealed, and Article 300A was introduced under Part XII of the Constitution.

Which of the following Articles deals with the improvement of public health under the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution? -Article 47
Fundamental duties are given in Part IV-A of the Indian constitution in Article 51A.
The fundamental duties were added by the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1976

Swaran Singh Committee was established in 1976 -Fundamental Duties
Sarkaria Commission: 1983 - Centre-State relationship.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee - evolution of local self-government (Panchayati Raj) institutions in India.

In which of the following cases the Supreme court declared 'judicial review' as part of the 'basic
structure'?- Minerva Mills vs Union of India
Which of the following element is not added to the "Basic Structure of the Constitution" by Keshvanand Bharti case? - Judicial review
The Kesavananda Bharati case did not provide a clear definition of 'basic structure' but listed principles such as federalism, secularism, and democracy as part of it.

The Supreme Court established the concept of 'basic structure' in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati vs. State of Kerala case (1973)
Golaknath case (1967), the Supreme Court held that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights, and this power would be only with a Constituent Assembly.

The 'basic structure' doctrine include:

the supremacy of the Constitution,

the rule of law,

Independence of the judiciary,

the doctrine of separation of powers,

a sovereign, democratic, republic,

the parliamentary system of government,

the principle of free and fair elections,

the welfare state, etc

Kesavananda Bharati case(1973) - Supremacy of the Constitution, Separation of powers between the legislature, executive and the judiciary
Indira Nehru Gandhi case - India as a sovereign democratic republic, Equality of status and opportunity of an individual, secularism and freedom of conscience and religion and rule of law.
Minerva mills case (1980) - Harmony and balance between fundamental rights and directive principles, limited power of the parliament to amend and the constitution, judicial review.
S. R. Bommai case (1994) - Federalism, Secularism,Democracy,Unity and Integrity of the nation,Social justice,Judicial review
I.R. Coelho Case (2007) - Rule of law, Separation of powers, Judicial review, Principle of equality.
Namit Sharma Case (2013) -Freedom and dignity of the individual

Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali were added by the 92nd Amendment Act of 2003.
The Sindhi language was added in the 8th schedule by the 21st Amendment Act of 1967.
Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment Act of 1992.
Part XVII of the Indian constitution deals with the official languages in articles 343 to 351.

The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 transferred five subjects to Concurrent List from State List, that is, (a) education, (b) forests, (c) weights and measures, (d) protection of wild animals and birds, and (e) administration of justice; constitution and organization of all courts except the Supreme Court and the high courts.

Originally there were

97 subjects in the union list but now it is 100 subjects in the union list.
In the state list, there were 66 subjects but now it is 61 subjects.
In the concurrent list, there were 47 subjects but now it is 52 subjects in the concurrent list.

Inter-state Council Article 263
Finance Commission Article 280
Administrative Tribunal Article 323A
UPSC - Article 315

The first country to introduce the institution of Ombudsman (Lokpal) was Sweden.

Key Points

An Ombudsman is to be appointed and removed by the Legislature.
The demand for creating Ombudsmanin India was initially put forward by K. M. Munshi in 1960.
Santhanam Committee is the committee that recommended the establishment of an Ombudsman like an institution in India in 1964.
Lokpal is an anti-corruption authority constituted at the center.
It is modelled on the Ombudsman system in Scandinavian countries.
The word Lokpal was coined by L.M. Singvi in 1963.
The concept of Lokpal was suggested by Ashoke Kumar Sen in 1960.
The Lokpal bill was first introduced in the Lok Sabha by Shanti Bhooshan in 1968.
Lokpal consists of 9 members including Chairperson. Of these 50% of members are from Judicial background.
The current Chairperson of Lokpal - Pinaki Chandra Ghose.
Lokpal bill assented by Pranab Mukherjee.
Lokpal bill came into force - 16 January 2014.
The person who struggled for a Lokpal - Anna Hazare

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Members and Chairman of NHRC hold the office for a duration of 3 years or until they attain 65 years of age.
The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) was established on the recommendation of the Santhanam Committee.
The Santhanam Committee, also known as the Committee on Prevention of Corruption, was set up in 1962 to address issues related to corruption in India.
The Committee was headed by K. Santhanam, a prominent Indian politician and freedom fighter.

Preamble of the Indian Constitution

The Preamble declares India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, and Republic nation.
It enshrines the ideals of Justice, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

42nd Amendment Act, 1976

This amendment is also known as the "Mini Constitution" due to its extensive changes.

It introduced the terms 'Socialist', 'Secular', and 'Integrity' to the Preamble.

The amendment was enacted during the Emergency period under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

In a parliamentary system, the executive is responsible to the elected legislature Government of India Act of 1935 - Emergency Provision
British Constitution - Prerogative writs
The Vice President can be removed from his office by: a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha may resign his office by writing, addressed to the -Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha
Who is elected as the Pro tem Speaker in the newly elected Lok Sabha? - Senior most member of Lok Sabha
Who presides over a joint sitting of the Parliament if neither the Speaker nor the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha is available -Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha

Estimates Committee is the largest parliamentary committee & consists of 30 members. All members of the estimates committee are selected only from Lok Sabha.
The first estimate committee in post- independent India was constituted in 1950.
It was constituted on the recommendation of the former finance minister John Mathai.
The chairman of the estimates committee is invariably from the members at the ruling party.

Sanjay Jaiswal is the current chairperson of the estimates committee.

The term of office of the estimates committee member is one year.
A minister is not eligible to be elected to the estimates committee.
The chairman of the Public Accounts Committee is invariably from Lok Sabha and from the opposition party.
Members are from both Lok Sabha(15) and Rajya Sabha(7)

Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury is the current chairperson of the Public Accounts Committee.

The chairman of the Committee on Public Undertaking is appointed by the speaker amongst the members of the Lok Sabha.

Santosh Kumar Gangwar is the current chairperson of the committee on Public Undertaking

The union executive of Indian polity is a part of the political executive, that comprises three important posts:

President (Article 52-62)
Vice President
Prime Minister & Council of Ministers (Article74-75 & Article 78)
Attorney-General of India (Article 76)

The tenure of a member of the Rajya Sabha is 6 years lower house of a parliament or Lok sabha is called a Popular Chamber not a rajya sabha

Article 74 in The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers to aid and advise President.
Article 75 in The Constitution deals with the other provisions as to Ministers.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, while the other ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
This means that the President can appoint only those persons as ministers who are recommended by the Prime minister.
Usually, the members of Parliament, either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, are appointed as ministers.
A person who is not a member of either House of Parliament can also be appointed as a minister.
But, within six months, he must become a member (either by election or by nomination) of either House of Parliament, otherwise, he ceases to be a minister.
A minister who is a member of one House of Parliament has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of the other House also, but he can vote only in the House of which he is a memher
The salaries and allowances of ministers are determined by Parliament from time to time.
A minister gets the salary and allowances that are payable to a member of Parliament.
Additionally, he gets a sumptuary allowance (according to his rank), free accommodation, travelling allowance, medical facilities, etc.

Second Schedule Provisions relating to the emoluments, allowances, privileges and so on:

The President of India
The Governors of States
The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha
The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly in the states
The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council in the states
The Judges of the Supreme Court
The Judges of the High Courts
The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

Article 75(3) of the Constitution, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha.
Therefore, Motions such as No Confidence Motion, Adjournment Motion and Censure Motion are admissible only in Lok Sabha.
Article 75 deals with the appointment, tenure, responsibility, qualification, oath and salaries and allowances of the ministers.
Under Article 75(5) a Minister who for any period of six consecutive months is not a member of either House of Parliament shall at the expiration of that period cease to be a Minister.

Under which Article of the Indian Constitution, there will be a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to aid and advise the President? -Article 74(1)

A Minister who is a member of the house of Parliament has the right to speak and take part in proceedings of the other house of Parliament but can vote only in the house in which he is a member.
Under Article 75 it is clearly stated that the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It means they work as a team and swim or sink together.

When the Lok Sabha passes a no- confidence motion against the Council of Minister the Ministers have to resign including those Ministers who are from the Rajya Sabha.
The Council of Minister can advise the President to dissolve the Lok Sabha on the ground that the house does not represent the views of the electorate faithfully and call for fresh elections the President may not oblige the council of the minister that has lost the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
It is the duty of every Minister to stand by cabinet decisions and support them both within and outside the Parliament.
if any Minister disagrees with a cabinet decision and is not prepared to defend, he must resign.
The ministers can hold office during the pleasure of the President which means that the President can remove a Minister even at a time when the Council of Ministers enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
There is no legal responsibility of a Minister in India.
Governor appoints the district magistrate with the consent of - The Council of Ministers of the State
1/6 members of the State Legislative Council are nominated by the Governor of the State.
What is the minimum age required to be a member of the Council of States -30

Qualifications of Judges

A person to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court should have the following qualifications:

He should be a citizen of India.
He should have been a judge of a High Court (or high courts in succession) for five years; or
He should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years; or
He should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the president.

A person appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court, before entering upon his office, has to make and subscribe an oath or affirmation before the President, or some person appointed by him for this purpose.
Article 131 of the Indian Constitution provides the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in centre- state and interstate disputes.

Article 129 Supreme Court to be a court of record
Article 130 The seat of the Supreme Court
Article 132 Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in appeals from the High Court in certain cases

Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President under Article 124(2) of the Constitution.
A judge of the Supreme Court submits his resignation to the President of India.

A person to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court should have the following Qualifications under Article 124 (3)

Should be a citizen of India.
Should have been a judge of a High Court (or High courts in succession) for at least five years.
Should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High courts in succession) for at least ten years.
Should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

Article 133 - Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in High Courts regarding civil matters

Article 134A - Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court

Article 137 - States about the Review of judgment by the supreme court

Article 134 - Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court regarding criminal matters

The High Court of a State has the following jurisdictions

Original jurisdiction: This refers to the power of the High Court to hear cases for the first time. It includes cases related to revenue, admiralty, contempt of court, probate, and marriages.

Appellate jurisdiction: This refers to the power of the High Court to hear appeals from lower courts. It includes cases where the applicant has raised a complaint challenging the judgement given by a subordinate court of that territory.

Supervisory jurisdiction: This refers to the power of the High Court to supervise the functioning of lower courts. It includes the power to issue writs, directions, or orders to lower courts.

Which of the following qualifications is required for a person to be appointed as a district judge in a state?

A candidate must have been an advocate or pleader for at least seven years to be eligible for the post of district judge.

The candidate must be recommended by the High Court for appointment, ensuring judicial expertise and integrity.

Individuals already in service of the Central or state government are not eligible for direct recruitment as district judges.

The criteria are designed to ensure that candidates have adequate legal experience and independence from executive influence.

The Constitution gives the powers of superintendence over all subordinate courts to the High Court's -Article 227

Within how many days, an appeal can be made by an aggrieved person by decision of the National Green Tribunal to the Supreme Court -Ninety days

The National Green Tribunal, established in 2010, as per the National Green Tribunal Act is a specialized judicial body equipped with expertise solely for the purpose of adjudicating environmental cases in the country.

The Tribunal has a presence in five zones- North, Central, East, South and West. The Principal Bench is situated in the North Zone, headquartered in Delhi.

A person to be appointed as district judge should have the following qualifications:

He should not already be in the service of the Central or the state government.

He should have been an advocate or a pleader for seven years.

He should be recommended by the high court for appointment.

Administrative Tribunals Act of 1985

The SATs (State Administrative Tribunals) exercise original jurisdiction in relation to recruitment and all service matters of state government employees.

Appointment

The chairman and members of the SATs are appointed by the President after consultation with the governor of the state concerned.
The act also makes a provision for setting up of Joint Administrative Tribunal (JAT) for two or more states.
A JAT exercises all the jurisdiction and powers exercisable by the administrative tribunals for such states.

Tribunals were not part of the original constitution. It was incorporated into the Indian Constitution by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.

Article 323-A deals with Administrative Tribunals.
Article 323-B deals with tribunals for other matters.

With respect to the Subordinate Courts, consider the following statements:

The session judge has the power to impose capital punishment.
The Chief Judicial Magistrate tries criminal cases that are punishable with imprisonment for a term of up to seven years
Who appoints the chairman of the Central Administrative Tribunal - President of India.

The 74th Amendment Act of 1992 provides for the constitution of the following three types of Municipalities in every State:

Nagar Panchayat- For a transitional area, i.e., an area in transition from a rural area to an Urban area.
Municipal Council- For a smaller Urban Area. i.e., an Area of Population of more than 100,000.
Municipal Corporation- For a larger Urban Area i.e., an area with a population of more than 1 million.
In 1687-88, The first Municipal Corporation in India was set up at Madras.
In 1726, municipal corporations were set up in Bombay and Calcutta.

74th Amendment Act of 1992

This Act added a new Part IX-A- 'The Municipalities' to the constitution of India.
The new part consists of Provisions from Articles 243-P to 243-ZG.
The Act also added a new Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution.
This schedule contains 18 functional items of Municipalities and deals with Article 243-W.

One-third of the Seats and One-third of offices of the Chairperson at all levels of Panchayati Raj Institutions shall be reserved for women of SC/ST.
Gram Sabha is the body consisting of all the persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level.
There will be a Panchayat at the intermediate level

Important Points

The Panchayat Raj System was first adopted by the state of Rajasthan in Nagaur district on 2nd Oct 1959. The second state was Andhra Pradesh.
The system has three levels: Gram Panchayat (village level), Mandal Parishad or Block Samiti or Panchayat Samiti (block level) & Zila Parishad (district level)
It was formalized in 1992 by the 73rd amendment to the Indian Constitution.
The 73rd amendment contains a provision for devolution of powers and responsibilities to the panchayats, both for the preparation of socio- economic development plans and the ability to levy and collect appropriate taxes, duties, tolls, and fees.

The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 relates to the Urban Local Government.
It has added Part- IX-A of the constitution which deals with the administration of Urban local bodies i.e. Municipalities and Nagar Palika.
It consists of Article 243 P to Article 243 ZG. It is included in the 12th Schedule of the Indian Constitution which contains 18 Subjects.

C. Rangarajan -Measurement of Poverty

Kasturirangan - Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA).

Mandal - Socially and Educationally Backward Classes

Based on the recommendation of the Bhuria Committee in 1995, the Parliament enacted the Panchayat Extension to the Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act, in 1996
How many resolutions have been identified by the Central Government in collaboration with the State Governments to achieve sustainable development goals for Panchayats? - 9 resolution.
Part IX ("The Panchayats") of the Constitution covers provisions from Article 243 to 243(0).
The eleventh Schedule covers 29 subjects within the functions of the Panchayats.
Provisions for disqualifications from the membership of Panchayat are mentioned in Article 243F.

Some of the Articles and their matter of subject are mentioned below:

Article 243A - Gram Sabha;
Article 243B - Constitution of Panchayats;
Article 243C - Composition of Panchayats; etc.

Bihar is one of the states that have implemented 50% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj .

Supreme Court of India

It is the highest judicial court and the final court of appeal under the Constitution of India.
It has the power of judicial review to ensure the protection of the constitution.
It acts as the guardian of the Constitution by ensuring that laws and executive actions conform to the Constitution.

Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India

The CAG is an authority established under Article 148 of the Constitution.
It audits all receipts and expenditure of the Government of India and the state governments.
The CAG ensures accountability and transparency in the financial administration of the government.

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

The UPSC is a constitutional body under Article 315 of the Indian Constitution.
It is responsible for conducting examinations for appointments to the civil services of India.
The UPSC ensures a merit-based selection process for the recruitment of civil servants.

Attorney General of India

The Attorney General does not have a fixed tenure and can be removed by the President at any time.
He/she has the right to participate in the proceedings of both houses of Parliament but without the right to vote.
The Attorney General advises the government on legal matters and performs other legal duties assigned by the President.

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

It is a constitutional body established under Article 338A of the Indian Constitution by the 89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003.

Tribal Advisory Council (TAC)

It is a constitutional body established under Article 244(1) and Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution

When does the Election Commission of India issue the election notification for the election to the office of the President? : On any day within the period of sixty days before the expiry of the term of office of the outgoing President

Article 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the Constitution deals with the UPSC and State Public Service Commissions.
The UPSC is a constitutional body responsible for conducting examinations for appointment to the services of the Union.
The members of the UPSC are appointed by the President of India and can be removed only in the manner specified in the Constitution.
The UPSC has the authority to advise the government on matters related to personnel management and disciplinary cases.
The tenure of the members is fixed at six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier

After independence, the first Lok Adalat in India was established in Madhya Pradesh in the year 1982.
It was held in the village of Una in the Junagarh district of Gujarat in 1982.
The first modern Lok Adalat was held in Chennai in 1986.
The Legal Services Authorities Act of 1987 gave Lok Adalats statutory status.
The award made by a Lok Adalat is final and has the same status as a decree from a civil court.
The Legal Services Authorities Act of 1987 gave Lok Adalats statutory status

The President of India has the authority to specify Scheduled Castes for each State and Union Territory, often on the advice of the respective State governments.
Scheduled Caste status is specific to each State, meaning a community designated as a Scheduled Caste in one State may not have the same status in another.

Who is considered the highest law officer of the state in India - Advocate general

Attorney General of India

The Attorney General is the highest law officer in the country.
He/she is appointed by the President of India.
The Attorney General's duty is to give advice to the Government of India on legal matters and perform other legal duties assigned to him/her.
The Attorney General has the right to participate in the proceedings of both houses of Parliament but without the right to vote.

Chief Justice of High Court

The Chief Justice is the head of the judiciary in a state.
He/she is appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the state.
The Chief Justice's duty is to preside over the high court and ensure the administration of justice in the state.

Comptroller and Auditor General

The of India (CAG) is the authority responsible for auditing the accounts of the state and central governments and public sector organizations.
The CAG is appointed by the President of India.
The CAG's duty is to ensure that public funds are used efficiently and for the intended purposes.

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Lord Ripon - First factory Act 1881, Ilbert Bill Controversy 1883-84
Lord Lytton - Royal Titles Act 1876, the maximum age for ICS reduced to 19, Indian Arms act 1878, Vernacular Press Act 1878
William Bentick - Abolition of Sati and introduction of English as an official language
Lord Minto - Indian Agricultural Services
In India, the practice of Sati was banned in the year - 1829
Arya Mahila Samaj was founded by Pandita Ramabai in the year 1882

In 1612, the Battle of Swally (Surat) was fought between the company forces and the Portuguese in which the company had a decisive victory, and this led to the rise of the East India Company as a paramount force in India, and also to the end of Portuguese dominance.

In the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the Nawab of Bengal was defeated by the British and a British puppet was placed on the throne.
Company rule effectively started with the Battle of Buxar in 1764 when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the company, and Robert Clive was made the Governor of Bengal
The Diwani (the right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha was given to the British East India Company by Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor in 1765 under the treaty of Allahabad.
The treaty was signed after the Battle of Buxar in which the English East India Company defeated the allied army of the Mughal emperor, Mir Qasim, and the Nawab of Awadh.

British East India Company

The East India Company was founded on December 31, 1600.
They established their first factory at Surat in 1608.
The British Company gained a foothold in India in 1612 when Mughal emperor Jahangir granted the rights to establish a factory in Surat to Sir Thomas Roe.

Dutch East India Company

The company was founded in 1602 by consolidating various companies.
It established its first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605.
Dutch exported indigo, cotton textiles, saltpeter, raw silk, and opium from India.

Danish East India Company

The company was founded in 1616 and came to India in the same year.
In 1620, they founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the eastern coast of India.
Important Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal.
They couldn't strengthen their position in India and lost all their position to the British by 1845.
They were mostly involved in missionary and conversion activities.

The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first among the European to come to India.
Vasco Da Gama came to India in 1498 through the sea route.
He came to Calicut where he was received warmly by the ruler Zamorin.
Vasco da Gama came back to India for the second time in 1501 AD. He set up a trading factory at Cannanore

Order in which the Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances

Hyderabad (1798)
Mysore (1799) - After Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War)
Tanjore (1799)
Awadh (1801)
Peshwa (Marathas) (1802)
Scindia (Marathas) (1803)
Gaekwad (Marathas) (1803)

The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept a well-framed subsidiary alliance.

Subsidiary Alliance was basically an agreement between the British East India Company and the Indian princely states, by virtue of which the Indian kingdoms lost their sovereignty to the English.
It also was a major process that led to the building of the British Empire in India and was introduced by Lord Wellesley, the Governor- General of India from 1798 to 1805.
It was actually used for the first time by the French Governor-General Marquis Dupleix.
Danish East India Company established their first factory at Tranquebar in Tamilnadu (1620) and Serampur in Bengal (1676).

In India, Serampore was their headquarter.
Portuguese were the first Europeans to start trade with India.
In 1600 British East India Company was formed and established their factory in 1608 at Surat.

The first permanent trading post of the Dutch East India Company was in Indonesia.
Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope to India.
In India Portuguese, established its trading settlements at Goa, Cochin, and Diu & Daman.
After Portuguese, Dutch entered India followed by English and French.

Jahangir accepted the proposal and the company created trading posts in Surat (where a factory was built in 1613), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690).
In India, they established the first factory in Masulipattanam in 1605, followed by Pulicat in 1610, Surat in 1616, Bimilipatam in 1641, and Chinsura in 1653.

First Carnatic War (1740-48)

Carnatic was the name given by the Europeans to the Coromandel coast and its hinterland.
The First Carnatic War was an extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe which was caused by the Austrian War of Succession.
The First Carnatic War is remembered for the Battle of St. Thome (in Madras) fought between the French forces and the forces of Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic, to whom the English appealed for help.

The Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle, (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession.
Under the terms of this treaty, Madras was handed back to the English.
The French, in turn, got their territories in North America.

Second Carnatic War (1749)

The background for the Second Carnatic War was provided by the Anglo-French rivalry in India.
Even after the end of the First Carnatic War, the peace in India was short-lived.
The opportunity was provided by the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the founder of the independent kingdom of Hyderabad, in 1748, and the release of Chanda Sahib, the son-in-law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic, by the Marathas in the same year.
Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic).
After initial reverses, Robert Clive emerged victoriously.
Godhead signed the treaty of Pondicherry in 1755 with the English

Third carnatic war (1758-1763)

In 1758, the French army under French General, Count Thomas Arthur de Lally captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
Now, the English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet under Admiral D'Ache at Masulipatnam.
The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22, 1760, at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
Pondicherry was returned to the French by the Treaty of Paris.
In 1599, a group of English merchants calling themselves the 'Merchant Adventurers' formed the British East India Company.
On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter with rights of exclusive trading to the company named the 'Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies.
Initially, a monopoly of 15 years was granted, which in May 1609 was extended indefinitely by a fresh charter.

The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1608 to secure permission to establish a "factory" (storehouse of goods) at Surat.
The Charter Act of 1813 ended the trade monopoly of East India Company in India.
Francisco de Almeida was the first governor of Portuguese, who introduced the policy of Bluewater.
Francisco de Almeida arrived at Cochin on October 31, 1505, with only 8 ships remaining.
He learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been slaughtered while he was there.
He dispatched his son Lourenço with six ships, which indiscriminately sank Calicut boats in Quilon's harbour.
Almeida settled down in Cochin. He improved the Portuguese defences at Cochin's Fort Manuel. With his victory in the naval Battle of Diu in 1509, Almeida is credited with establishing Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean. Almeida was the first Portuguese to arrive in Bombay by sea in 1509.
The Blue Water Policy (cartage system) was his policy. Almeida died in a conflict with indigenous peoples at the Cape of Good Hope in 1510, before returning to Portugal.

Vasco da Gama

Vasco Da Gama (1469-1524) was a Portuguese navigator who circumnavigated the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa and arrived in Calicut (now Kozhikode) on India's southwest coast.
The voyage to India was approved by King Manuel I of Portugal, who named Vasco Da Gama as the expedition's leader and the ArmaDa's captain.
Four ships and 170 sailors were part of the operation.
This was the first time that a European had arrived in India via sea.
Thus, da Gama is credited with the discovery of the sea route to India.
On May 20th, 1498, da Gama reached Kappad, near Kozhikode, which was then part of the Kingdom of the Zamorin (Samuthiri Raja) of Calicut.

Nino da Cunha

Nuno da Cunha was a Portuguese admiral who was governor of Portuguese possessions in India from 1529 to 1538.
He shifted the Portuguese capital from Cochin to Goa.
Da Cunha also attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal by settling many Portuguese nationals there with Hooghly as their headquarters.
Nino da Cunha assumed office as the governor in November 1529 and almost one year later shifted the headquarters of the Portuguese government in India from Cochin to Goa.

Alfonso d' Albuquerque

Albuquerque, who succeeded Almeida as the Portuguese governor in India, was the real founder of Portuguese power in the East.
His Policy was of dominating entire oriental commerce by setting up forts in strategic places in Asia and Africa supplemented by a strong navy.
He secured for Portugal the strategic control of the Indian Ocean by establishing bases overlooking all the entrances to the sea.
The Portuguese, under Albuquerque, bolstered their stranglehold by introducing a permit system for other ships and exercising control over the major ship-building centres in the region.
He acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 with ease.
They were also able to blockade and sack the Bijapuri ports of Danda-Rajouri and Dabhol, thus paralysing Bijapur's sea trade on the mainland.

Warren Hastings (1774-1785)

First Governor of Bengal Founded Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones
The dual Government system was brought to an end by the Regulating Act of 1773.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

Established postal system
Started the first railway line from Bombay to Thane in 1853
Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854)
Established public works department
Established engineering college at Roorkee.
He was the youngest governor-general of India.

Lord William Bentick (1823-1833)

Abolished Sati
Passed the charter act 1833
The annexation of Mysore (1831)
First governor-general of India (1833)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Started subsidiary alliance
Fourth Anglo-Mysore war was fought during his tenure
Censorship of Press Act 1799
After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar was made Nawab of the Bengal.
In 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, Nawab Mir Jafar conferred the 24 Paraganas of Bengal to the British and also the Jangli mahals (small administrative units), as a result, he was propped up as the Puppet Nawab.
In 1510, Alfonso de Albuquerque capture Goa, with the help of some locals.
In 1510 AD, Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. It was done with the help of Krishnadev Raya (ruler of the Vijaynagar empire).
He also worked for the abolishment of the practice of Sati in Goa.

Conquest of Malacca - 1511

Embassies to Pegu, Sumatra and Siam - 1511
Expedition to the spice islands -1512
Campaign in the Red Sea - 1513
Administration and diplomacy in Goa - 1514
The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was brought into effect by the East India Company headed by Governor- General Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
This was basically an agreement between the company and the Zamindars to fix the land revenue.
First enacted in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, this was later followed in the northern Madras Presidency and the district of Varanasi.
Cornwallis thought of this system inspired by the prevailing system of land revenue in England where the landlords were the permanent masters of their holdings and they collected revenue from the peasants and looked after their interests.
He envisaged the creation of a hereditary class of landlords in India. This system was also called the Zamindari System.
Thus, it is clear that Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793 (Bengal, Orissa, Bihar).

Pitt's India Act 1784

It established an authority in England to supervise the company's affairs. This is known as the Board of Control which has 6 members.
The revenues of India were controlled by the British parliament through Pitts India Act 1784.
The Governor-General in the council has more powers over Bombay and Madras Governors in matters related to the War, Revenue and Diplomacy.
In India, the strength of the executive council was reduced from four to three.

Charter Act of 1813

The monopoly of EIC was abolished in terms of trade with India.
The company still enjoyed the monopoly in terms of tea and trade with china trade for 20 more years. .
This act provided a grant of one lakh rupees per annum for the promotion of education in India. This act gave power to local governments to impose and collect taxes.
This act included a clause asserting the Crown's undoubted sovereignty over all of the Company's territories and required it to open up India to Christian missionaries. .

Permanent Settlement

The Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793.
Charles Cornwallis was the Governor- General of India when the Permanent Settlement was introduced.
By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars.
They were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company.
The amount to be paid was fixed permanently, that is, it was not to be increased ever in future.

Ryotwari System

Thomas Munro was a British colonial administrator who implemented the Ryotwari System in parts of India during the early 19th century.
As a revenue system, Ryotwari granted direct land rights to individual cultivators, or ryots, who paid taxes directly to the British East India Company.
Munro introduced this system as an alternative to the Zamindari System, aiming to reduce the oppressive practices of intermediaries and create a more equitable relationship between the farmers and the state.
Under the Ryotwari System, cultivators became responsible for their land, its productivity, and paying taxes, which resulted in greater accountability and direct control over agricultural practices.

Mahalwari system

Holt Mackenzie was a British colonial administrator who played a significant role in implementing the Mahalwari System in parts of British India during the 19th century.
The Mahalwari System was a revenue settlement system that aimed to improve land administration and revenue collection.
Under this system, the village community, or "mahal," collectively held the responsibility of paying taxes to the British authorities.
Mackenzie believed that this system would encourage collective responsibility, promote agricultural productivity, and reduce exploitation by intermediaries. The Mahalwari System differed from the earlier Zamindari System by directly involving the local community in land ownership and revenue sharing.

Doctrine of Lapse

The Doctrine of Lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856.
Dalhousie believed that the Doctrine of Lapse was necessary to prevent the growth of independent princely states that could pose a threat to British rule.
The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would "lapse", that is, become part of Company territory.

Ashley Eden was a magistrate of Barasat during Indigo revolt issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo contracts, word went around that Queen Victoria had declared that indigo need not be sown.
Eden was trying to placate the peasants and control an explosive situation, but his action was read as support for the rebellion.

The title of the kings who ruled the state of Awadh in north India during the 18th and 19th centuries was "Nawab of Awadh" or "Nawab of Oudh".
First Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan reigned from 1717 to 1727 and was also known as Zamin Ali Quli. He was born as hindu and was originally called, Surya Narayan Mishra.
The East India Company force led by Robert Clive and Siraj-Ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, engaged in a battle on June 23, 1757, at Plassey

Lord Dalhousie served as the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856.
He is also said to have convinced the British to introduce the railways in India through his famous Railway minutes of 1853. Thus, he is regarded as the father of Indian railways.
Established in the year 1952, Northern Railways is the largest zone in terms of kilometers covered (approximately 6807) in India.
The headquarters of the Northern Railways zone is at Baroda House, Delhi, and New Delhi Railway Station.

The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the Anglo- French struggle. The treaty was negotiated largely by Britain and France.
The first Carnatic War was fought between Britishers and the French due to the Austrian War of Succession.
The French forces under the Dupleix defeated the British and captured Madras.
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed in 1748.
Madras was restored to the English by the French by this treaty.
Thus, we can say that Madras was restored to the English by the French through the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle in 1748.

First Anglo-Mysore War - 1766-1769
The Pitt's India Act - 1784
The Subsidiary Alliance - 1798
The Doctrine of Lapse - 1848

The Treaty of Allahabad was signed on August 12, 1765, between Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Robert Clive as a result of the Battle of Buxar.
The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe between England and France in 1756 provided the context for the third and decisive round of Anglo-French conflict in south India.
The most decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760.
The succession dispute at Carnatic and Hyderabad provided the context for the Second Carnatic War.
French also lost Pondicherry to the British.
In the Battle of Wandiwash, General Eyre Coote of the English defeated the French army under Count Thomas Arthur de Lally and took Bussy as a prisoner.
The treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored to the French their factories in India but not allowed them to fortify them.
Also, the French ceased to be a political power in India.
The victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Company with no European rival in India.
During the Third Carnatic War, the French lost their positions in India, such as Chandernagore in Bengal, settlements at Masulipatnam and Yanam, etc.
However, by the Peace of Paris in 1763, France got back all the factories and settlements that it possessed in India prior to 1749, with the provision that it could not any more fortify Chandernagore.
The French East India Company was finally wound up in 1769.
The British India came up with 'sunset law', this law was regard to which of the following land revenue systems? - Permanent Settlement
Bakshi Jagabandhu was the military chief of the Raja of Khurda.
In 1817 he led the Paiks of Odisha against the forces of the East India Company.

Leaders and movements

Sidhu and Kanhu - Santhal rebellion
Baba Ram Singh - Kuka movement
Birsa Munda - Munda rebellion

Zamindari system

Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through the Permanent Settlement Act.
It was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
Zamindars were recognized as owners of the lands. Zamindars were given the right to collect the rent from the peasants.
The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.

Ryotwari settlement

Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820.
Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam and Coorg provinces of British India.
In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government collected taxes directly from the peasants.
The revenue rates of the Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.

Mahalwari System

Holt Mackenzie introduced the Mahalwari system in 1822(in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), and it was revised under Lord William Bentinck in 1833.
This system was implemented in the North-West Frontier, Agra, Central Province, Gangetic Valley, Punjab, and other areas.
It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.
The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari System and Ryotwari System.
In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprises one or more villages.
Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.
The villages committee was held responsible for the collection of the taxes

Chuar uprisings (1766-1772)

Chuar Rebellion occurred in the Bankura/Midnapore districts of modern West Bengal.
The term "Chuar" was used for local tribals in Bengal and it was a derogatory word (meaning pig).
The rebels rose in revolt due to the exploitative land revenue policies of the East India Company, which threatened their economic livelihoods.
The Famine, enhanced taxes, oppressive demands, and economic distress due to famines were common reasons for revolts of that period.
The leader of this revolt was Durjan Singh, a displaced Zamindar who along with his 1500 followers created havoc.

The Kol rebellion (1831)

It also known in British records as the Kol mutiny was a revolt of the Adivasi Kol people of Chhota Nagpur during 1831 as a reaction to economic exploitation brought on by the systems of land tenure and administration that had been introduced by East India Company.
The rebel kols were under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat, Madara Mahato, Joa Bhagat, and others.
The rebellious tribals are treated as bandits by British historiography.
There were clashes between the tribals Kols rebels and the armed forces in 1831.

Santhal rebellion (1855-56)

The Santhal rebellion (also known as the Santhal rebellion or the Santhal Hul), was a rebellion against both the British East India Company and the zamindari system by the Santhal. occurred in the regions of present-day Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal
It started on June 30, 1855, and on November 10, 1855, martial law was proclaimed by the East India Company which lasted until 3 January 1856 when martial law was suspended and the rebellion was eventually suppressed by the Presidency armies.
The rebellion was led by the four Murmu Brothers - Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav.

Munda uprisings (1899-1900)

Munda Rebellion is one of the prominent 19th century tribal rebellions in the subcontinent.
The Mundas inhabited the Chotanagpur area.
Birsa Munda led this movement in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900.
The Ulgulan, meaning 'Great Tumult', sought to establish Munda Raj and independence.
The Mundas traditionally enjoyed a preferential rent rate-Khunkatti as the original clearer of the forest.
But in course of the 19th century, they had seen this Khunkatti system being eroded by the jagirdars and thikadars coming as merchants and moneylenders.

The Faraizi Movement was founded by Haji Shariatullah.
After the death of Shariatullah, his son, Dudu Miyan became the leader of the Faraizi Movement.
They alleged that all zamindars, either Hindu or Muslim, assume the powers of a judge and fine the guilty person, and in the case of delay to pay the fine, practice every sort of oppression towards them.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is best known for the Aligarh Movement - a systemic movement aimed at reforming the social, political and educational aspects of the Muslim community. He founded the Scientific Society in 1863 to translate major works in the sciences and modern arts into Urdu.
Chittur Singh was one of the leaders of the Revolt of the Ramosis.

Lord Dalhousie(1848-56)

Original Name - James Andrew Broun Ramsay.
Abolished titles and pensions, Introduction of Widow Remarriage Bill.
Introduced Doctrine of Lapse,
Fought Anglo- Sikh War (1848-49),
annexed the whole of Punjab,
Anglo- Burmese War (1852),
Annexation of Berar in 1853,
Annexation of Awadh in 1856 on charges of maladministration.
Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 on the account of maladministration.
In his tenure from 1848 to 1856, he annexed eight states.
He directed Sleeman, the Resident in Awadh to take a tour of the state and submit a report describing the anarchical condition.
Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of lapse, the first railway line, and started the Public Works Department.
The 'Doctrine of Lapse' was a policy that aimed to- Extend the territorial boundaries of the English East India Company

Syed Ahmed Barelvi was the leader of the Wahabi Movement in india
Abdul Wahab was the founder of the Wahabi Movement in Arabia, but he was not directly involved in the Indian Wahabi Movement.
Kattabomma Nayak of Panchalamkurichi was considered as the main leader of the rebellion.
Subramania Pillai and Soundra Pandian Nayak were other important rebel leaders.

The Second Poligar war of 1800-01, given the magnitude of participation, is also known as the "South Indian Rebellion".
It was directed by a confederacy consisting of Marudu Pandian of Sivaganga, Gopala Nayak of Dundigal, Kerala Verma of Malabar and Krishnappa Nayak and Dhoondaji of Mysore.
The rebellion broke out when a band of Poligar armies bombed the combined forces of the poligars.
The suppression was followed by the signing of the Carnatic Treaty on July 31, 1801, whereby the British assumed direct control over Tamil Nadu.
The Poligar system, which had flourished for two and half centuries, came to a violent end and the company introduced the Zamindari settlement in its place.

The Poligar Rebellions happened from 1799- 1805.

Poligars were the offshoots of the Nayankara system prevalent in the Vijaynagar Administration.
The Poligars were quite similar to the Rajputs of North India and were given land in exchange for military service when called upon.
However, their influence and power increased beyond the traditional lines and they often acted as sovereigns, even to the extent of extracting taxes from the people.
In September 1799, in the first Poligar War, the poligars of Tirunelveli District rose up in open rebellion.

Who was responsible for introducing Enfield rifles that used the greased cartridges which became the immediate reason of 1857 revolt?- Henry Hardinge

Events of the struggle of 1857 in chronological order are

The movement spread from Dum Dum cantonment to Meerut on 10 May 1857.
In Lucknow, it reached on 30 May 1857.
It was spearheaded by Rani Jhansi in Jhansi and started there on June 1857.
In Nasirabad it started on 28 May 1857.
The uprisings continued simultaneously mostly till 1858 and in some places till 1859 too.

In which year Mangal Pandey, a young soldier, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore? - 8 April 1857
What was the primary focus of the Brahmo Samaj when it was formed in 1828? - Emphasis on Upanishads and Hindu traditions

Prarthana Samaj is a Hindu reform society established in Bombay in the 1860s.
Keshab Chandra Sen helped Atmaram Pandurang establish Prarthana Samaj.
Servants of India Society is established by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905 for the expansion of Indian education.
Social service League was founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi a follower of Gokhale in Bombay.
Dharma Sabha was founded by Radhakanta Deb in 1830.

The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College was founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at Aligarh. Later it became the Aligarh Muslim University. His objective was to build a college in tune with the British education system but without compromising its Islamic values. The institution offered modern education, including Western science, to Muslims.

The Deoband Movement was established in Deoband in the Saharanpur district (United Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828- 1905) to train religious leaders for the Muslim community.
On the political front, the Deoband School welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress and in 1888 issued a fatwa (religious decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan's organizations, The United Patriotic Association, and the Mohammed Anglo-Oriental Association.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Virsalingam Pantulu fought for widows' Remarriage.
Vidyasagar championed the upliftment of the status of women in India, particularly in his native Bengal.
Kandukuri Veeresalingam was one of the early social reformers from South India who encouraged women's education, and remarriage of widows which society at the time was vehemently opposed along with opposing the dowry system. He started an association of widows Remarriage in Madras presidency.

Boycott resolution was passed against the partition of Bengal (August 1905).
The partition of Bengal came into effect (October 1905).
Dadabhai Naoroji announced that the goal of INC was Swaraj (December 1906).
Surat Split (December 1907).

Home Rule movement in India

There were two home rule leagues launched.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.
Annie Besant launched the Home Rule League in September 1916 at Madras.
They had the common objective of achieving self-government in India.
Tilak home rule movement was based in Maharashtra, Karnataka, central province, and Berar.
Besant's movement was in the rest of India. The aim was to be achieved by promoting political education and discussion through public meetings and reading rooms containing books on national politics, holding conferences, organizing classes for students on politics.
The objectives and aim spread through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, illustrated post-cards, religious songs, and participating in local government activities

Ahmedabad textile mill strike that Gandhiji for the first time during the Indian National Movement took fast unto death( to strengthen the workers' resolve). Hence his first hunger strike was during Ahmedabad Strike and not at Kheda

Discontinuation of the Plague bonus was the immediate cause for Ahmedabad textile mill strike.
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): It was Mahatma Gandhi's first hunger strike. The workers of the mill were demanding a rise of 50% in their wages. The Mill Owners were willing to give only 20% wage hike. It involved cotton or textile mills of Ahmedabad. Gandhi was invited by Anasuya Ben Sarabai and her brother Ambalal Sarabhai, leading mill- owner of Ahmadabad towards the cause of the mill owners.
The result was that the strike was successful and the workers got a 35% wage hike
Anushiya Sarabhai was a social worker and also the sister of Ambalal Sarabhai one of the mill owners and the President of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association.

Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association was founded in 1891.
Champaran Satyagraha(1917) was Mahatma Gandhi's first civil disobedience movement.
Kheda Satyagraha(1918) was Mahatma Gandhi's first non-cooperation movement.

Trick to remember Mahatma Gandhi's moments after coming to India: Mahatma Gandhi ate CAKe (Champaran Ahmedabad Kheda) after coming to India

Morley Minto reforms

For the first time, separate electorates for Muslims for election to the central council was established-a most detrimental step for India.
The number of elected members in the Imperial Legislative Council and the Provincial Legislative Councils was increased.
According to Sumit Sarkar, in the Imperial Legislative Council, of the total 69 members, 37 were to be the officials and of the 32 non- officials, 5 were to be nominated.
Of the 27 elected non-officials, 8 seats were reserved for the Muslims under separate electorates (only Muslims could vote here for the Muslim candidates), while 4 seats were reserved for the British capitalists, 2 for the landlords and 13 seats came under general electorate.
The separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians were provided in the 1919 Government of India Act. The elected members were to be indirectly elected.
One Indian was to be appointed to the viceroy's executive council (Satyendra Sinha was the first Indian to be appointed in 1909).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1911 had introduced a bill in the Imperial Legislative Council for introduction of - Compulsory and free primary education in India
The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, of 1856 legalized the remarriage of Hindu widows on 16th July 1856. This act also provided all the rights and inheritances to all the widows that they have had at the time of her first marriage.
The Bengal Sati Regulation which banned the Sati practice in all jurisdictions of British India was passed on December 4, 1829, by the then Governor-General Lord William Bentinck.
The Bengal Regulation Acts of 1795 and 1804 declared murdering of female infants illegal and thus in 1870, an act was passed for the prohibition of female infanticide.

The annulment of partition of Bengal was decided in 1911 (Delhi Durbar) under the viceroyship of Lord Hardinge.
Lord Minto - II was appointed the Viceroy of India in the year 1905 after the resignation of Lord Curzon and served office till 1910.
It was decided to annul the partition of Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb the menace of revolutionary terrorism.
The annulment came as a rude shock to the Muslim political elite.
It was decided to shift the capital to Delhi as a sop to the Muslims, as it was associated with Muslim glory, but the Muslims were not pleased. Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal and Assam was made a separate province.

The President of the Indian National Congress at the Patna Session in 1912 was Rao Bahadur Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar.
The 1917 session of INC was presided by Annie Besant and she also became the first female president of INC.

Sarojini Naidu

Sarojini Naidu is known as the 'Nightingale of India'.
In 1917 she helped in the formation of the Women's Indian Association (WIA).
Sarojini Naidu took part in the Salt March with Mahatma Gandhi and was arrested by the British authorities along with all the Congress leaders in 1930.
Sarojini Naidu moved a resolution for the enfranchisement of women in the 1917 session of the Indian National Congress.

The arrests prompted Congress to stay away from the First Round Table Conference taking place in London. Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931 however, Sarojini Naidu and other leaders would participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
She wrote a collection of poems- 'Feather of Dawn'

1. The News Paper Act (1908) - To control violent activities in the newspaper

2. The Indian Press Act (1910) - Provision for a penalty on the printing press.

3. Seditious Meetings Act, (1907) - For the prevention of public meetings

About Gandhiji

1916 - 1st public appearance --> Banaras Hindu University(BHU)
1917 - 1st Civil Disobedience Movement Champaran, Bihar
1918 - 1st Hunger Strike --> Ahmedabad Mill Strike
1918 - 1st Non Cooperation Movement(NCM) -- > Kheda Satyagraha
1919 - 1st mass strike --> Rowlatt Satyagraha
1919-1922 - Khilafat Movement & NCM

On July 6, 1944, Subhash Chandra Bose said in a telecast of Azad Hind Radio to Mahatma Gandhi that "the last war of independence of India has begun.

Thus, for the first time, the word 'Father of the Nation' was used by Subhash Chandra Bose.

Subhash Chandra Bose

He founded the Independence for India League with Jawaharlal Nehru.
He was the first person to address Mahatma Gandhi as the 'Father of the Nation'.
He was elected as the President of INC at its Haripura Session (1938) and Tripuri Session (1939) but resigned from Tripuri due to differences with Mahatma Gandhi.
He took the charge of Indian Army (Azad Hind Fauj) in 1943 in Singapore and set up an Indian Provisional government there.

Subhash Chandra Bose was the one who addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the Nation.

He gave the famous slogans- Dilli Chalo and Jai Hind. The India Struggle was his autobiography.

Nehru report

"Nehru Committee Report" was also called the draft constitution that was prepared in 1928.
The Nehru Report had the primary motive of assigning Dominion status to India within the British Commonwealth.

So, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indian leaders to draft a constitution for India, implicitly implying that Indians were not capable of finding a common path and drafting a constitution.
This committee was headed by Motilal Nehru with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Secretary. Other members were Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mangal Singh, M S Aney, Subhas Chandra Bose, Shuaib Qureshi and G R Pradhan.
The draft constitution prepared by the committee was called the Nehru Committee Report or Nehru Report. The report was submitted at the Lucknow session of the all-party conference on August 28, 1928.
This was the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitution for themselves.

Dominion status for India

Nineteen fundamental rights including the right to vote for men and women above 21 years of age (Adult Suffrage), unless disqualified.
Equal rights for men and women as citizens.
A federal form of government with residual powers with the centre. There would be a bicameral legislature at the centre. The ministry would be responsible to the legislature. Governor-General to be the constitutional head of India. He would be appointed by the British monarch.
A proposal for the creation of a Supreme Court.
The provinces would be created along linguistic lines. No separate electorates for any community. It did provide for the reservation of minority seats. It provided for reservations for seats for Muslims at the centre and in provinces where they were in a minority and not in Bengal and Punjab. Similarly, it provided reservations for non- Muslims in the NWFP.

Sharda act

The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, passed on 28 September 1929, in the Imperial Legislative Council of India.
It fixed the age of marriage for girls at 14 years and boys at 18 years.
In 1949, after India's independence, it was amended to 15 for girls, and in 1978 to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.

Civil Disobedience Movement

It began with Gandhi's well-known Dandi March.
Gandhi Ji set out on foot from the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad on March 12, 1930, with 78 other Ashram members for Dandi, a village on India's western seacoast about 385 kilometres from Ahmedabad.
On April 6, 1930, they arrived in Dandi. Gandhi broke the salt law there.
Following the defiance of the salt law, the Civil Disobedience Movement spread across the country.
During the first phase of the civil disobedience movement, salt production spread across the country, and it became a symbol of the people's defiance of the government.
It was launched to attain 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence.
The Civil Disobedience Movement was aimed at breaking certain laws like the Salt Laws.
People also refused to pay taxes in some places. The growing proximity of the Congress party & Hindu Mahasabha and the British policy of divide and rule prevented the Muslims from participating in the Civil Disobedience
Movement But large scale participation of women is one of the most significant features of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The civil disobedience movement saw widespread geographical coverage and mass participation in comparison to the non- cooperation movement. The movement was withdrawn after the signing of the Gandhi-Irwin pact in 1931

M.N. Roy was the first Indian to make the demand for a constituent assembly for India in 1934.
In 1934, the INC session was held in Bombay and President was Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885 by A.O. Hume in Bombay.
The first session was held in Bombay and the first president was W. C. Bannerjee.
72 People Journalists, social reform, and Lawyers participated in the first session.
Lord Dufferin was the viceroy of India when INC was formed.
Anni Besant (Woman's rights activist) was the first women president of the INC in the Calcutta session in 1917.
Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian women president of the INC in the Kanpur session in 1925.
During the freedom movement, when did the Indian National Congress make the demand for a Constituent Assembly to frame a separate Constitution for India? - 1934

The Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party was formed in December 1922 by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru to unite the Congress and Khilafat movements and demand Swarajya (self-rule) and defend the rights of the Khilafat.
In fact, the Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party was formed with the aim of bringing together the Congress and Khilafat movements, and it supported the Congress' program for achieving self-rule.
The Swarajya Party's primary goal was to push for Swarajya and defend the Khilafat cause, but it did not oppose the Congress programs.
The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was founded by Bhagat Singh.
Dr. Keshav Baliram Hedgewar was the founder of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). .
The Indian Union Muslim League was founded by M. Muhammad Ismail in 1948 after partition, not by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
The Peasants and Workers Party of India was co- founded by Nana Patil and other leaders in Maharashtra.

Satyagraha at Different Places

Tamil Nadu - C. Rajagopalachari organized a march from Tiruchirapalli (Trichinopoly as it was called by the British) to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore (or Thanjavur) coast to break the salt law.
Malabar - K. Kelappan, a Nair Congress leader famed for the Vaikom Satyagraha, organized salt marches.
Andhra Region - District salt marches were organized in east and West Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur.
Orissa - Under Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri, a Gandhian leader, salt satyagraha proved effective in the coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri districts
Peshawar - Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan's educational and social reform work among the Pathans had politicized them. Gaffar Khan also called Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi, had started the first Pashto political monthly Pukhtoon and had organized a volunteer brigade 'Khudai Khidmatgars', popularly known as the 'Red-Shirts', who were pledged to the freedom struggle and non-violence.
Dharasana - On May 21, 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal took up the unfinished task of leading a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works.
Manipur and Nagaland - These areas took a brave part in the movement. At the young age of thirteen, Rani Gaidinliu fought against the Britishers very bravely.

The first Labour Party member to hold the position of prime minister in the UK, Ramsey Macdonald was a British politician.
On August 16, 1932, Ramsay MacDonald established the Communal Award.
It was announced following the Round Table Conference (1930-32) and is also known as the MacDonald Award.
The Poona Pact refers to an agreement between Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi_signed on September 24, 1932.

This Pact ended the fast that Gandhi had undertaken in jail to protest against British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald's award of a separate electorate to the Depressed Classes. It was signed during the time of Lord Willington.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

The Second Round Table Conference was to be held in 1931 in London. In 1930, the Salt Satyagraha was conducted and India and Gandhi received worldwide attention. The British government in India was criticised for its unjust treatment of Indians. Gandhi and many other leaders were imprisoned along with thousands of Indians.

Lord Irwin wanted the issue to come to an end. So, Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931. The then Congress President Sardar Vallabhai Patel authorised Gandhi to hold talks with Lord Irwin. Accordingly, Gandhi met Irwin and held negotiations. It was for the first time that the two were meeting as 'equals'.

Demands of Gandhi-Irwin Pact

The Indian National Congress (INC) agreed to take part in the Round Table Conference.
The INC would stop the civil disobedience movement.
Withdrawal of all ordinances that curbed the activities of Congress.
Withdrawal of all prosecutions except those involving violent crimes.
Release of those who were arrested for taking part in the civil disobedience movement.
Removal of the salt tax.
The Government of India Act 1935 was a step forward towards the responsible government in India. It was a Detailed document containing 321 sections and 10 schedules.

Features of Government of India Act 1935

It provided for the establishment of an all India Federation.
They divided the powers between the centre and states based on three lists- Federal list, provincial list, and concurrent list.
Residuary powers were given to the viceroy.
Abolished Dyarchy in the provinces and introduced provincial autonomy.It provided for the adoption of Dyarchy at the centre in which the federal subjects were divided into reserved and transferred subjects.
It introduced bicameralism in 6 out of 11 provinces - Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, and United provinces.
It extended the principle of communal representation by providing separate electorates for depressed classes like scheduled caste, women, and workers.
It abolished the Council of India.
It extended the franchise.
It provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank of India to control the currency and credit of the country.
It provided for the establishment of the Federal Public Service Commission, provincial public service commission, and joint Public Service Commission.
It provided for the establishment of a federal court which was set up in 1937.

August Offer

Both Gandhi and Nehru strongly opposed the idea of taking advantage of Britain's position. Congress was ready to compromise, asking the British government to let it form an interim government during the war period but the government was not interested.
Linlithgow announced the August Offer (August 1940) which proposed: dominion status as the objective for India; expansion of the viceroy's executive council which would have a majority of Indians (who would be drawn from major political parties); setting up a constituent assembly after the war where mainly Indians would decide the constitution according to their social, economic, and political conceptions, subject to fulfilment of the obligation of the government regarding defence, minority rights, treaties with States, all Indian services; no future constitution is to be adopted without the consent of minorities.
Congress rejected the August Offer.
Nehru said, "Dominion status concept is dead as a doornail."
Gandhi said that the declaration had widened the gulf between the nationalists and the British rulers.
The Muslim League welcomed the veto assurance given to the League and reiterated its position that partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
For the first time, the inherent right of Indians to frame their constitution was recognised and the Congress's demand for a constituent assembly was conceded.
Dominion status was explicitly offered

Rajagopalachari formula of 1944 was associated with reaching a consensus with the Muslim League regarding the formation of new states and distribution of rights and powers. This formula was supported by MK Gandhi. .

Additional Information: This formula failed because Jinnah rejected this.
Jinnah's opposition- Two Nation theory must be recognized. Only the Muslim population of proposed areas would vote in plebiscite not the entire population of that area Against the idea of common center This formula was also opposed by V D Savarkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee of the Hindu Mahasabha and Srinivas Sastri of the National Liberal Federation.
The Radcliffe Boundary Commission was established in 1947 to demarcate the boundary between India and Pakistan.
The commission was chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer.
It was formed as part of the Indian Independence Act 1947, which led to the partition of British India.
The boundary line drawn by the Radcliffe Commission is known as the Radcliffe Line.

The major proposals of this formula are as follows

Mulsim League comes with congress to support the demand for Independence. A provisional government would be formed at the centre by both parties' coalition.
A commission would be formed to demarcate areas of an absolute majority of Muslims and a plebiscite would be held here to decide whether to stay with the Union of India or to form a new sovereign state.
In case of partition, the powers of Defence, communication and commerce would stay with the Union of India.

Hilton Young Commission

Also known as the Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance, it was established in 1926.
It played a significant role in the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India in 1935.

Bretton Woods Commission

The Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 led to the establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
It played a crucial role in shaping the post- World War II global economic order.

Gandhi Irwin Pact

Signed on March 5, 1931, between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India.
The pact marked the end of the civil disobedience movement and led to the release of political prisoners.

Radcliffe Line

The Radcliffe Line is the boundary demarcation line between India and Pakistan, drawn in 1947 upon the Partition of India.
The line divides the Indian subcontinent into two nations: India and Pakistan. The demarcation was based on religious majorities, with areas predominantly Muslim becoming part of Pakistan and areas predominantly Hindu remaining in India.
It led to one of the largest mass migrations in human history and significant violence and turmoil.

Subhas Chandra Bose was unhappy with the congress resolution of giving support to the British in the war.
Congress decided to support the British in the war on the condition of setting up a Provisional Government at the centre.
The proposal was responded to by Lord Linlithgow in the form of an August Offer.
The 53rd session of congress, the Ramgarh session was held on 18 March 1940 in Jharkhand, which lasted for 3 days.
SC Bose became the president of Congress in 1938 and 1939.
Due to the active support of Gandhi to Pitta B. Sitaramaiya in the congress election of 1939 SC Bose resigned from congress which created a dispute between Bose and Congress.
The August Offer was rejected by Congress
Usha Mehta, along with her close associates, started the secret congress radio during the Quit India Movement.
The radio was started to spread the message of the Congress and to motivate people to participate in the movement.
Usha Mehta was a freedom fighter and a prominent member of the Indian National Congress. She was also a teacher and played a significant role in educating the masses about the freedom struggle.
The Quit India Movement was launched on 8th August 1942, and it was a mass civil disobedience movement against the British rule in India.
Bhikaiji Cama was an Indian revolutionary who is known for designing the first version of the Indian National Flag.
Lakshmi Sehgal was a freedom fighter and a close associate of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.
Sarojini Naidu was a poet, social activist, and a prominent member of the Indian National Congress. She was also the first woman Governor of an Indian state (Uttar Pradesh).

Tiger Legion' or 'Free India Legion'

The founder of 'Tiger Legion' or 'Free India Legion' was Subhas Chandra Bose.
The legion was formed during World War II with the objective of freeing India from British rule with the help of Axis powers.
The legion consisted of Indian prisoners of war captured by the Japanese army in Southeast Asia and Indian civilians in exile in Germany. The legion was also known as the Indian Legion and Azad Hind Fauj.

Subhas Chandra Bose

He is also known as Netaji
He was an Indian nationalist opposed to British rule in India.
An advocate of armed resistance, he became a leading figure in the Indian independence movement in the 1930s and 1940s.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

He was a prominent Indian independence activist and politician.

Sohan Singh Bhakhna

• He was a Sikh political and religious leader who played a significant role in the Ghadar Movement.

Lala Hardayal

He was a revolutionary and writer who founded the Ghadar Party.

The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to frame the Constitution of India.
An idea for a Constituent Assembly was proposed in 1934 by M. N. Roy.
The Constituent Assembly was constituted in November 1946 under the scheme formulated by the Cabinet Mission Plan.
The representatives of princely states were to be nominated by the heads of the princely states.
Constituent Assembly was to be a partly elected and partly nominated body.
Moreover, the members were to be indirectly elected by the members of the provincial assemblies, who themselves were elected on a limited franchise.
Seats were allotted on the basis of the population at that time and NOT on the basis of the Communal Electorate.
The constituent assembly was set up on 6th December 1946.
It was constituted under the provision of the cabinet mission plan 1946.
The first official meeting of the constituent assembly was held on 9th December 1946.
On 11 December 1946 Rajendra Prasad was appointed as President, vice-Chairman Harendra Coomar Mookerjee and constitutional legal adviser B. N. Rau (initially 389 members in total, which declined to 299 after partition.
On 13 December 1946, an 'Objective Resolution' was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution, which later became the Preamble of the constitution.
On 22 January 1947 Objective resolution was unanimously adopted.
The first meeting was conducted with 207 members including 9 women.
The constituent assembly adopted the Indian constitution on 26th November 1949.

Matangini Hazra (1869-1942)

She was an Indian revolutionary who participated in the Indian independence movement until she was shot dead by the British Indian police in front of the Tamluk Police Station on 29 September 1942 during the Quit India Movement.
She was affectionately known as Gandhi Buri, Bangla for old lady Gandhi.
In 1905, she became actively interested in the Indian independence movement as a Gandhian.
In 1932, she took part in the Non- cooperation Movement and was arrested for breaking the Salt Act.

Kanaklata Barua

Kanaklata Barua also called Birbala and Shaheed (martyr), was an Indian independence activist and AISF leader who was shot dead by the British police while leading a procession bearing the National Flag during the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Barua was born in the Borangabari village of the undivided Darrang district of Assam as the daughter of Krishna Kanta and Karneshwari Barua.
Barua joined the Mrityu Bahini ('Death Army'), a death squad comprising groups of youth from the Gohpur subdivision of Assam, which was formed by Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, in line with Gandhi's 'Do or Die' call.
She died on 20 September 1942 (aged 17) in Borangabari, Gohpur, Assam

Aruna Asaf Ali

Aruna Asaf Ali was born on 16 July 1909, into a Bengali Brahmin family in Kalka, Punjab, British India (now in the Indian state of Haryana).
She was a publisher, political activist, and educator from India.
She was an ardent member of the fight for Indian independence, and she is well known for hosting the Indian National flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay in 1942, during the Quit India Movement.
In the Indian Independence Movement, Aruna Asaf Ali played a significant role. After getting married to Asaf Ali, she joined the Indian National Congress and took part in the Salt Satyagraha's public processions.
She was imprisoned in 1931 in violation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which called for the release of all political prisoners, since she was accused of being a wanderer

Shanti Ghosh

A revolutionary phase in Bengal saw large scale participation of young women under Surya Sen's leadership.
They provided shelters, acted as messengers and custodians of arms and fought guns in hand.
Preeti lata Waddekar died while conducting a raid, while Kalpana Dutt was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen and given a life sentence.
In December 1931, two school girls, Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhary, shot dead the district magistrates.
On the 14th of December 1931, Shanti and Suniti, aged 14 and 15 years respectively, innocently entered the bungalow of Mr. Stevens with and Magistrate a pistol shot him dead at point-blank range. Spared of capital punishment due to her age; she was sentenced to life imprisonment and made to suffer all sorts of physical torture but did not yield.
Released in 1939 at Gandhi's intervention, she resumed her studies. She was a member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly (1962-67); later also of the Legislative Council.

Lord Wavell (1943-1947) served as the Viceroy of India during a crucial period of World War II and the lead-up to Indian independence, including the Bengal famine and the Quit India Movement.
In 1945, Lord Wavell introduced the "Wavell Plan," proposing a reorganization of the Indian government to include more Indian representatives.
The Shimla Conference was convened by Lord Wavell in an attempt to discuss India's political future and the formation of a new executive council that would include more Indian members.
It was a key event in India's path to independence but ended unsuccessfully due to disagreements between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
Viceroy Lord Linlithgo described the Quit India Movement (1942) as by far the most serious rebellion since 1857.

Nagpur Session

On 4 September 1920, Congress met at Calcutta in a special session.
In December 1920, Congress met once again in the Nagpur Session.
This time the differences of CR Das had melted away.
He moved the main resolution of Non- cooperation. A program of the surrender of titles, the boycott of schools, courts, and councils, the boycott of foreign goods, the promotion maintenance of Hindu-Muslim unity, and strict non-violence was adopted.

Lahore session of 1929

The most landmark resolution was that the Nehru Committee Report had now lapsed and Dominion status will not be acceptable.
A Poorna Swarajya Resolution was passed.
In pursuance of this resolution, the Central and Provincial Legislatures had to be boycotted completely and all the future elections were also to be boycotted.
A Programme of the Civil Disobedience was to be launched.

Bombay session

On 8 August 1942 at the All-India Congress Committee session in Bombay, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi launched the 'Quit India' movement.
The next day, Gandhi, Nehru, and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested by the British Government.
Disorderly and non-violent demonstrations took place throughout the country in the following days.
Bipin Chandra Pal - The Soul of India
B. R. Ambedkar - Thoughts on Linguistic State

Hunter commission - 1882

It was constituted to look into the status of elementary education of India.
Its another objective was to look into the failure in implementation of Wood's Despatch.
William Wilson Hunter was the chairman of this commission who was a member of Indian Civil Services.
Its another name was Higher Education Commission.
It was appointed by Lord Rippon, Viceroy of India.

Recommendations

Encourage primary education
Progress in Secondary education.
Grant-in aid for schools
Moral and Physical education were emphasized.

Saddler Commission - 1917

Dr Michael Sadler was the chairman of this committee.
It recommended 10+2+3 pattern of education.
Purdah schools were established for Muslim girls.
It recommended separate board for secondary and intermediate education.

Wood's Despatch - 1854

Charles Wood, who was the president of Board of control of English education in EIC, sent a despatch to Lord Dalhousie.
This laid down the foundation of education in India.
He emphasized on Art, science, literature and philosophy of Europe, in his recommendations.

Sargent Plan - 1944

Sir John Sargeant was asked to prepare a comprehensive plan for education in India in the year 1944.
It recommended promotion of pre-primary education.
Secondary schools were intended to provide education to those students who were above average and had excellent aptitude for higher education.
The Congress declared its' policy towards the Indian States for the first time at its Nagpur Session in 1920.
The President of this session was C. Vijayaraghavachariar. It called upon the Princes to grant full. responsible government in their States.
Congress allowed the people of the States to get enrolled as members, but they could not initiate political activity in the State in the name of the Congress.
In the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced the leaders of the Congress of the need to start a non- cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj. Lala Lajpat Rai was the President of this session.
Gaya Session was held in 1922 with C.R. Das's presidentship. CR Das and other leaders broke away from INC. Swaraj Party form in this session. First Lucknow Session was held in 1916 with A.C. Majumdar's presidentship.
Unity between two factions-Moderates and Extremists of Congress.
In this session, Lucknow Pact was signed between Congress and Muslim League to build political consensus.
The second Lucknow Session was held in 1936 with Jawahar Lal Nehru's presidentship. Push towards socialist ideas by Jawahar Lal Nehru.
In December 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress at its Lahore session passed the Poorna Swaraj resolution declaring complete independence to be the goal of the national movement

Significance of the Lahore Session 1929

The Round Table Conference was to be boycotted.
Complete independence was declared as the aim of Congress.
Congress Working Committee was authorized to launch a program of civil disobedience with complete independence as its goal including non-payment of taxes and all members of legislatures were asked to resign their seats.
26 January 1930 was fixed as the first Independence (Swarajya) Day, to be celebrated everywhere.
The Two Nation Theory was propounded by the Muslim League in its Lahore Session,

Hunter Commission Vocationalization of Education

It was appointed in 1882 to examine the implementation of the Dispatch of 1854, which tried to streamline school education into two streams of high school: one leading to university education and the other to the commercial, vocational and technical education.
It was appointed by Viceroy Lord Ripon.
It was headed by Sir William Wilson Hunter, who had submitted its report in 1882

Indian Councils Act, 1861

Legislative councils had no control over budget.
Legislative councils could not discuss executive action.
Secretary of state could disallow a legislation
It enlarged the Governor General's Council for the purpose of making laws.
The Governor General was authorised to increase the number of members.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

It increased the number of additional (non-official) members in the Central and provincial legislative councils but maintained the official majority in them.
It increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the power of discussing the budget and addressing questions to the executive

Indian Councils Act of 1909

It also provided for the separate representation of presidency corporations, chambers of commerce, universities and zamindars.
It introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the concept of a 'separate electorate'.
It provided (for the first time) for the association of Indians with the executive councils of the Viceroy and Governors.
It enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both levels. For example, members were allowed to ask supplementary questions, move resolutions on the budget, and so on.
It retained an official majority in the Central legislative council but allowed the provincial legislative councils to have a non-official majority.
The Government of India Act, 1919 is important as it introduced - Diarchy
All three namely Provincial Autonomy, Reserve Bank of India, and Public Service Commission were established under the Government of India Act 1935.
The Government of India Act 1935 also provided for the division of powers between the Centre and the Provinces in terms of three lists- Federal List, Provincial List, Concurrent List This Government of India Act 1935 provided for the adoption of dyarchy at the centre as well as it also introduced bicameralism in 6 out of 11 provinces namely Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Bihar, Madras, and the United Province
The Government of India Act, 1935 provided for a provincial executive system where the Governor played a central role.
The executive authority of the province was vested in the Governor, who functioned under the authority of the British Crown.
The Act introduced the concept of a Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor in certain matters, primarily concerning provincial autonomy.
The system of Dyarchy, which was introduced at the provincial level by the Government of India Act, 1919, was abolished under the 1935 Act.
However, the Governor retained significant discretionary powers and could override the advice of the Council of Ministers in certain situations.
The Governor was not accountable to the provincial legislature and could not be removed by a vote of no confidence. This feature ensured that the Governor remained a representative of British authority in India.
The Muslim League formally withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on 29 July 1946. Post withdrawal, the Muslim League decided to launch the "Direct Action Day" on 16 August 1946 to press the government to accept its demand for Pakistan.
The All-India Muslim League was a political party established in Dhaka in 1906 when a group of prominent Muslim politicians met the Viceroy of British India, Lord Minto, with the goal of securing Muslim interests on the Indian subcontinent.
The cabinet mission plan was formed in the year 1946.
The main purpose of this plan was to transfer the power from the British government to the Indian government.
The three British cabinet members were - Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, and A.V Alexander.
The elections were held for the first time for the constituent assembly.
The members of the constituent assembly were elected by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable-vote system of proportional representation
A Supreme Court of judicature was established in Bengal under Regulating Act of 1773, with original and appellate jurisdictions.
According to the provision of the Charter Act of 1833, a law member was added to the governor- general's council for professional advice on law- making.
The Pitt's India Act (1784) gave the British government a large measure of control over the Company's affairs and a Board of Control consisting of the chancellor of exchequer, a secretary of state, and four members of the Privy Council was established.

Charter Act, 1833

Governor-General: William Bentinck.
It was the first step in the centralisation of India's administration.
The Governor-General of Bengal was re- designated as the Governor-General of India.
William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India.
The Governors of Bombay & Madras were deprived of their legislative powers.
The Governor-General's council was to have four members
As per the act, an Indian Law Commission was established.
Provision for Indians in government service.
Macaulay as its chairman. It stated that merit should be the basis of employment to government service and not birth, colour, religion or race.
The act provided for the mitigation of slavery prevalent in India.

Charter Act of 1853

Governor-General: Dalhousie.
It introduced an open competition for the selection & recruitment of civil servants.
It didn't provide any time frame which was an indication that the Company's rule could be terminated at any time the Parliament liked.
A separate Lieutenant Governor was appointed for Bengal.
6 new members were appointed to the Governor General's Council to assist in framing laws.
A judicial member was made a full-time member of the Governor-General's Council.
It separated the legislative & executive functions of the Governor-General's Council.
Discussions on legislation were made in public instead of in secret.
Discussions in the council became oral instead of being in writing.
Bills were referred to Select Committees for consideration instead of a single member

Dalhousie (1848-56)

Occupied Punjab in 1849.
Merged Darjeeling & some other parts of Sikkim in 1850 AD.
The Charles Wood Despatch was constituted in his reign.
The first railway line was laid during his reign from Mumbai to Thane.
The first electric telegraph service was started between Calcutta and Agra.
The first time in 1854, the circulation of Postal Stamps began.
He established the Public Education Department in 1854.

Features of Charter Act 1833

It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Thus, the act created, for the first time, a Government of India having authority over the entire territorial area possessed by the British in India. Lord William Bentinck was the first governor-general of India.
It deprived the governor of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers. The Governor-General of India was given exclusive legislative powers for the entire British India. The laws made under the previous acts were called Regulations while laws made under this act were called Acts.
It ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial body, which became a purely administrative body. It provided that the company's territories in India were held by it 'in trust for His Majesty, His heirs and successors'.
The Charter Act of 1833 attempted to introduce a system of open competition for the selection of civil servants and stated that the Indians should not be debarred from holding any place, office, and employment under the Company. However, this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of Directors.

Charter Act of 1853

This was the last of the series of Charter Acts passed by the British Parliament between 1793 and 1853. It was a significant constitutional landmark.
It separated, for the first time, the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General's council.
It introduced, for the first time, local representation in the Indian (Central) Legislative Council.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

After the great revolt of 1857, the British Government felt the necessity of seeking the cooperation of the Indians in the administration of their country.
In pursuance of this policy of association, three acts were enacted by the British Parliament in 1861, 1892 and 1909.
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is an important landmark in the constitutional and political history of India.
It made a beginning of the representative institutions by associating Indians with the law-making process.
It empowered the Viceroy to issue ordinances, without the concurrence of the legislative council, during an emergency.
The life of such an ordinance was six months.

The Charter Act of 1793 was an important legislative act passed by the British Parliament, which renewed the charter of the East India Company for an additional period of 20 years.
This act maintained the monopoly of the East India Company in trade, particularly in the region of India, which was a significant source of revenue for the British Empire.
The act also made provisions to allocate a part of the company's revenue for civil and military expenses incurred by the British Government in India.
One of the major outcomes of the act was the emphasis on the governance and administration of Indian territories controlled by the East India Company.
The act continued the system of dual administration, where the Company had administrative control but was overseen by the British Crown.
It was during this period that the East India Company's role transitioned more from a commercial enterprise to an administrative authority in India.
The act also legalized the payment of the Company's employees from Indian revenue, ensuring better management and accountability

Government of India act, 1858

This act is also called "Act of Good Governance".
In this act, the Governor-General designation was converted to Viceroy.
This act also ended the "Dual government system" also known as the "Double Government system" as set up Pitt's India Act.
"Council of India" was created under this act.
And the secretary of state was made the chairman of the "Council of India".
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 marked a major milestone in introducing Indian representation in the legislative process of British India.
It allowed the Viceroy to nominate Indians as non-official members to his Legislative Council.
Three Indians were nominated in 1862, including Raja of Benaras, Maharaja of Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao.
The Act also provided for the inclusion of Indians in the law-making process, though their role was largely advisory and limited to certain areas.
The primary aim was to placate Indian opinion and include local elites in governance post the 1857 Revolt.

Charter Act of 1813

This Act ended the trade monopoly of the East India Company in India, except for trade in tea and with China.
It marked the beginning of British efforts to introduce Western education in India. However, it did not contain any provisions for Indian representation in governance.

Charter Act of 1853

The last of the Charter Acts, it separated legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General's Council.
It introduced an open competition system for civil services but did not allow Indian representation in the legislature.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

This Act expanded the Legislative Councils and allowed limited discussion on budgets but did not grant Indians substantial legislative powers.
It introduced an indirect election process for some members, but the electorate was highly restricted.
Indian Councils Act, 1892 introduced by Richard Assheton Cross.
It increased the number of additional (non- official) members in the Central and provincial legislative councils but maintained the official majority in them.
It increased the functions of legislative councils and gave them the power of discussing the budget and addressing questions to the executive.
It provided for the nomination of some non- official members of the: Central Legislative Council by the viceroy, Provincial legislative councils by the Governors on the recommendation of the district boards, municipalities, universities, trade associations, zamindars and chambers.
It was repealed by the Government of India Act 1915.
Government of India Act of 1935 is also called the blueprint of the Indian constitution
It introduced a system of dyarchy at the center.
The act laid the foundation of democracy in India.

Significance of the 1861 Act

The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is considered the first step toward Indian political participation in the governance of British India.
It laid the groundwork for future reforms, like the Acts of 1892 and 1909, which gradually increased Indian involvement.
The Indian Councils Act, of 1892, which was an amending Act, increased the number of members to the Central Legislative Assembly to 16 members.
It was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that empowered legislative councils in British India by increasing their size.

Indian Councils Act of 1861: Marked the beginning of the process of decentralization in the legislative process by allowing Indians to be nominated to the legislative councils.
Indian Councils Act of 1909: Introduced communal representation for Muslims, enabling them to elect their representatives separately, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Advocated for the inclusion of bicameralism and self-rule in the legislative structure, aligning with the idea of Swaraj.
Government of India Act of 1935: Abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced provincial autonomy, marking a significant shift in governance.

British government announced constitutional reforms in July 1918, known as Montagu- Chelmsford or Montford reforms. Based on these, Government of India act 1919 was enacted.

The main features of Montford reforms were as follows

The act introduced dyarchy for the executive at the provincial level of government. Dyarchy i.e., rule of two- executive councillors and popular ministers.
Subjects was divided into two lists i.e., Reserve list and transferred list.
Reserve subjects included law and order, finance, land revenue, irrigation etc. They were to be administered by governor through his executive council of bureaucrats.
Transferred subjects included education, health, local government, agriculture etc. They were to be administered by ministers nominated from among the elected members of the legislative council. The ministers were to be responsible to the legislature while the executive councillors were not to responsible to the legislature.

In case of failure of constitutional machinery, governor could take over the administration of transferred subjects also, Provincial legislative councils were further expanded. The system of communal and class electorates was consolidated, Women were also given the right to vote.

The Indian press was freed of restrictions by Charles Metcalfe in 1835. He is called 'Liberator of India Press'. This step had been welcomed enthusiastically by the educated Indians.
This was attempted by passing the Vernacular Press Act in 1878. This Act put serious restrictions on the freedom of the Indian language newspapers only.
The Censorship of the Press act, 1799: Lord Wellesley imposed censorship on all newspapers. It imposed almost wartime restrictions on the press.
The regulations required: The newspaper to clearly print in every issue the name of the printer, the editor, and the proprietor; and The publisher is to submit all material for pre-censorship to the Secretary to the Government.

The Licensing Act, 1857

The emergency caused by the Rebellion of 1857 led the Government to reimpose restrictions on the press.
The Act reintroduced licensing restrictions in addition to the existing registration procedure laid down by the Metcalfe Act.
The Act prohibited the keeping or using of printing presses without a license from the Government and the Government reserved the discretionary right to grant licenses or revoke them at any time.
The Government was also empowered to prohibit the publication or circulation of any newspaper, book, or other printed matter.
The act was an emergency measure and its duration was limited to one year. Charles Metcalfe's statute, however, continued in force.
The Registration Act, 1867 replaced Metcalfe's Act of 1835 pertaining to the registration of printing presses and newspapers.

Press Committee, 1921

In 1921 a Press Committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, then Law Member of the Viceroy's Executive Council, to review the working of press laws.
On the recommendations of the Committee, the Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed.
Macaulay emphasised the need to teach the English language. He felt that knowledge of English would allow Indians to read some of the finest literature the world had produced; it would make them aware of the developments in Western science and philosophy. The teaching of English could thus be a way of civilising people, changing their tastes, values and culture.
Following Macaulay's minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced
A decision was taken to make English the medium of instruction for higher education and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College.
The Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General of India, known as the Wood's dispatch.

The New India newspaper New India was started by Annie Besant in 1914 to cover the issues and aspects of the Indian Freedom Struggle.
Young India was published by Mahatma Gandhi under Navjivan Trust. It was founded as a means to spread news related to the Indian freedom struggle, and as a means to vocalize the views of its founder. It was originally a newspaper called 'Madras Standard' which she renamed 'New India' after purchasing it.
Hickey's Bengal Gazette was a weekly English newspaper published from Calcutta, India by the Irishman James Augustus Hickey It was the first newspaper of the sub- continent and was started in 1780, It was an inspiration for the Indians to launch a newspaper of their own.
At Barindra Kumar Ghose's suggestion, Sri Aurobindo Ghose agreed to start paper Yugantar, which was to preach open revolt and the absolute denial of the British rule and include such items as a series of articles containing instructions for guerrilla warfare.

The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60

It was the most militant and widespread of the peasant movements.
The planters forced the peasants to take a meager amount as advance and enter into fraudulent contracts which, often he was not in a position to repay.
The advance was used by the planters to compel them to go on cultivating indigo.
The price paid for the indigo plants was far below the market price.
The peasant was forced to grow indigo on the best land he had whether or not he wanted to devote his land and labor to more paying crops like rice.
At the time of delivery, he was cheated even of the due low price.
He also had to pay regular bribes to the planter's officials.
With a few exceptions, the magistrates, mostly European, favored the planters with whom they dined and hunted regularly. Those few who tried to be fair were soon transferred.

Zamindari system

Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through the Permanent Settlement Act. It was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi. Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
Zamindars were recognized as owners of the lands. Zamindars were given the right to collect the rent from the peasants.
The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.

Ryotwari settlement

Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820 Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam and Coorg provinces of British India.
The Ryotwari system was introduced by the British East India Company in parts of India such as Madras (now Tamil Nadu) and Bombay (now Mumbai).
In contrast, the Ryotwari system did not primarily rely on the village headman for revenue collection.
Revenue was assessed on the cultivable land each farmer held, and farmers paid taxes directly to the government, bypassing any village intermediaries
The government's direct interaction with individual farmers was a key characteristic of the Ryotwari system.
This system aimed to eliminate the role of intermediaries, thereby providing a direct link between the government and the individual farmers.
Each farmer was responsible for paying taxes directly to the government based on the land they owned or cultivated.
Under this system, the government dealt directly with the peasant (or ryot) for the collection of land revenue.
In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government collected taxes directly from the peasants.
The revenue rates of the Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land

Mahalwari system

Holt Mackenzie introduced the Mahalwari system in 1822(in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), and it was revised under Lord William Bentinck in 1833.
This system was implemented in the North-West Frontier, Agra, Central Province, Gangetic Valley, Punjab, and other areas.
It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.
The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari System and Ryotwari System.
In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprises one or more villages.
Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.
The villages committee was held responsible for the collection of the taxes

The peasantry of Kheda consisted mainly of Patidars who were known for their skills in agriculture. The Patidars were well-educated.
Kheda is situated in the central part of Gujarat and was quite fertile for the cultivation of tobacco and cotton crops.
There was a severe famine in Kheda, which failed crops.
The government did not accept the failure of crops but was insistent on the collection of land tax, not considering the conditions of peasants.
Thus, the Kheda Satyagraha was started in March 1918 under the leadership of Gandhiji, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, N.M. Joshi, and several others.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became a follower of Gandhiji during the Kheda movement
The Tebhaga movement was led by the Communists of the Bengal Provincial Krishak Sabha.
It was a militant movement led from 1946-47. The movement started in North Bengal and included districts- Dinajpur, Rangpur (now in Bangladesh), Jalpaiguri, and Malda.
They were protesting against the share-cropping or Bargadari system.
The lands were shared by Peasants and rich landlords who fooled the Peasants cheated them monetarily and sometimes occupied their land forcefully.
Sharecropping peasants had to give half of their produce to the landlord.
The movement spread to 19 districts of Bengal. The movement was withdrawn when large-scale violence outbreaks were witnessed in Jalpaiguri, Jessore, Dinajpur between the Bargadars/Sharecroppers and Jotedars/Landlords.
It marked a conscious departure from the Congress and Gandhian ideology flavored movements that were earlier noticeable in the country.
The movement was led by the All India Kisan Sabha, the peasant wing of CPI.
Swami Sadananda was a favorite, sometimes claimed to be the first, a disciple of Swami Vivekananda. He was part of the Ramkrishna Mission Movement started by Swami Vivekananda. He joined the Baranagar Math to serve the other disciples of Vivekananda.

The Self-Respect Movement, initiated by E.V. Ramasamy Naicker in 1925, aimed to abolish discrimination against non-Brahmins and promote rational and humanistic thought in Tamil Nadu.

The Khilafat Movement, launched in 1919, was a pan- Islamic movement that sought to protest the harsh terms imposed on the Ottoman Empire by the Allied Powers after World War I.
The Tebhaga Movement erupted in 1946-1947 in Bengal, where peasants demanded a two-thirds share of their harvest against the existing practice of giving half to the landlords.
The Telangana Peasant Uprising, also known as the Telangana Rebellion, was a peasant revolt that took place in the Telangana region of Hyderabad State from 1946 to 1951, against the feudal system of forced labor and oppressive taxation.
The Bardoli Satyagraha took place in the year 1928 under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. It was a major peasant movement in the Bardoli taluka of Gujarat. The movement was initiated as a response to the increase in land revenue assessment by the British government. Due to the success of the movement, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel earned the title of "Sardar" or leader.
The Pagal Panthi movement was led by Karam Shah and his son Tipu. It aimed to protect the rights and interests of the tribal communities in Bengal. The movement was a blend of religious and political elements, advocating social justice

The Moplah Uprising (also called the Mappila Rebellion) took place in 1921, predominantly in the Malabar region of present-day Kerala.
The rebellion primarily involved the Muslim Moplah (Mappila) community protesting against British colonial rule and oppressive Hindu landlords.
The uprising was part of the larger Khilafat Movement, which aimed to protect the Ottoman Caliphate and was supported by Indian Muslims.
The Moplahs were enraged by the exploitation and land revenue systems imposed by the British and landlords, leading to violent clashes.

ΝΙΤΙ Aayοg

National Institution for Transforming India came into existence on 1st January 2015.
It replaced the Planning Commission.
It is the policy-making think tank of government.
It aims to involve all States & UTs in economic policymaking.
It provides strategic & technical advice to the Central & the State government.
It is neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body.
It is a non-constitutional or extra- constitutional body as it was not created by the Constitution of India.
It is a non-statutory body as it is not created by an Act of Parliament

Goa Liberation Day

On December 19, 1961, Indian armed personnel managed to wrest control of Goa from the Portuguese, ending around 450 years of colonial rule.
The Goa Opinion Poll was a referendum held in the state of Goa, India on 16 January 1967, to decide the future of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman, and Diu within the Indian Union.
The fight for freedom began in the 1940s as India inched closer to independence from British rule.
On 30th May 1987, the territory was split and Goa was formed, Daman and Diu remained a Union Territory.

UPSC EPFO 2025 Polity & History Important Questions and Answers | Most Expected Topics & PYQs

Expected Topics for UPSC EPFO 2025 Polity and History Section

Key Points

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Preamble of the Indian Constitution

42nd Amendment Act, 1976

Qualifications of Judges

Administrative Tribunals Act of 1985

Appointment

74th Amendment Act of 1992

Important Points

Supreme Court of India

Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

Attorney General of India

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

Tribal Advisory Council (TAC)

Attorney General of India

Chief Justice of High Court

Comptroller and Auditor General

British East India Company

Dutch East India Company

Danish East India Company

The Portuguese

Order in which the Indian States entered into Subsidiary Alliances

First Carnatic War (1740-48)

Second Carnatic War (1749)

Third carnatic war (1758-1763)

Vasco da Gama

Nino da Cunha

Alfonso d' Albuquerque

Warren Hastings (1774-1785)

Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

Lord William Bentick (1823-1833)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Conquest of Malacca - 1511

Pitt's India Act 1784

Charter Act of 1813

Permanent Settlement

Ryotwari System

Mahalwari system

Doctrine of Lapse

Leaders and movements

Zamindari system

Ryotwari settlement

Mahalwari System

Chuar uprisings (1766-1772)

The Kol rebellion (1831)

Santhal rebellion (1855-56)

Munda uprisings (1899-1900)

Lord Dalhousie(1848-56)

The Poligar Rebellions happened from 1799- 1805.

Events of the struggle of 1857 in chronological order are

Home Rule movement in India

Morley Minto reforms

About Gandhiji

Subhash Chandra Bose

Nehru report

Dominion status for India

Sharda act

Civil Disobedience Movement

Satyagraha at Different Places

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Demands of Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Features of Government of India Act 1935

August Offer

Hilton Young Commission

Bretton Woods Commission

Gandhi Irwin Pact

Radcliffe Line

Tiger Legion' or 'Free India Legion'

Subhas Chandra Bose

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

Sohan Singh Bhakhna

Lala Hardayal

Matangini Hazra (1869-1942)

Kanaklata Barua

Aruna Asaf Ali

Shanti Ghosh

Nagpur Session