Basics of programming

Approaches to Problem Solving

Problem solving in programming means understanding a problem clearly and writing a step-by-step solution that a computer can execute.

There are three major approaches:

A. Top-Down Approach

• Breaks the problem into major modules first, then into smaller sub-problems.
• Starts from the overall view and goes toward detailed steps.
• Easy to manage and understand.

Example: Design “Online Shopping System” → break into Login, Product Search, Cart, Payment.

Advantages

• Better organization
• Easier debugging
• Supports modular programming

B. Bottom-Up Approach

• Starts from the smallest components (functions, modules) and builds up to the complete system.
• Focuses on creating reusable components first.

Example: Design functions like “CalculatePrice()”, “AddToCart()” → combine them into full shopping system.

Advantages

• Promotes reusability
• Reduces redundancy
• Strong component architecture

C. Modular Approach

• Divides the program into independent, logical modules.
• Each module can be developed and tested separately.

Advantages

• Easy maintenance
• Code reusability
• Parallel development by teams

Use of High-Level Programming Languages (HLL) for Systematic Development

High-Level Languages (HLL) like Python, Java, C++, C#, PHP make programming easier because they are closer to human language.

Why HLL is used for development?

1. Easy to Read and Write

• Code is simple and English-like.
  Example: print("Hello")

2. Increased Productivity

• Programmers can write complex logic with fewer lines.

3. Portability

• Code can run on multiple platforms (OS-independent).

4. Large Standard Libraries

• Built-in functions reduce coding effort.

5. Error Reduction

• Strong syntax rules reduce mistakes.

6. Faster Development Cycle

• Supports debugging tools, IDEs, and frameworks.

7. Structured and Object-Oriented Programming

• Makes programs modular, reliable, and easier to scale.

Conclusion: High-level languages allow systematic, faster, and error-free development of large applications.

Concept of Algorithm

An algorithm is a finite set of well-defined, step-by-step instructions to solve a given problem.

Characteristics of a Good Algorithm

1. Clear and Unambiguous – Every step is simple and understandable.
2. Finite – Must end after a limited number of steps.
3. Input/Output – Should accept input and produce output.
4. Correctness – Must solve the problem accurately.
5. Efficient – Uses minimum time and memory.
6. Independent – Can be implemented in any programming language.

Example Algorithm: Find Sum of Two Numbers

Step 1: Read A, B 
Step 2: Sum = A + B 
Step 3: Print Sum 
Step 4: Stop

Concept of Flowchart

A flowchart is a visual representation of the steps in an algorithm using symbols, arrows, and shapes.

Common Flowchart Symbols

Symbol	Meaning
Oval	Start/Stop
Parallelogram	Input/Output
Rectangle	Process/Calculation
Diamond	Decision (Yes/No)
Arrow	Flow direction

Benefits of Flowcharts

• Easy to understand
• Helps find errors
• Good for documentation
• Represents logic clearly

Example Flowchart for Addition

Start → Input A, B → Calculate A+B → Display Result → Stop

Concept and Role of Structured Programming

Structured Programming is a programming method based on the use of clear, logical structures for writing programs.

It avoids unorganized “spaghetti code”.

Three Basic Control Structures

1. Sequence – Instructions executed in order
2. Selection – Decisions (if-else, switch)
3. Iteration – Loops (for, while)

Role and Importance of Structured Programming

• Improves Readability - Code becomes easier to understand.
• Easier Debugging - Errors can be located easily because logic is clean.
• Reduces Complexity - Breaks program into smaller blocks.
• Enhances Reusability - Modules and functions can be reused.
• Supports Team Work - Different programmers can work on separate modules.
• Improves Quality - Produces reliable and maintainable software.

Summary Table

Topic	Key Points
Approaches to Problem Solving	Top-down, bottom-up, modular
High-Level Languages	Easy, portable, fast development
Algorithm	Step-by-step instructions
Flowchart	Visual diagram of algorithm
Structured Programming	Sequence, selection, iteration

History of C

• C was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell Labs, USA.
• It was originally created to develop UNIX operating system.
• C evolved from two earlier languages: BCPL and B.
• The first standardized version of C was ANSI C (C89) followed by C99 and C11.
• C influenced many modern languages like C++, Java, C#, Python, PHP, etc.

Salient Features of C

• Simple & Efficient - Easy to learn but powerful for system-level programming.
• Structured Programming Language - Supports functions and modular programming.
• Portable- Programs can run on different machines without modification.
• Fast Execution - Compiled language → very high performance.
• Rich Library - Provides built-in functions for I/O, math, string operations, etc.
• Low-Level Access - Supports pointers, memory management, hardware interaction.
• Extensible - Allows creation of user-defined functions.

Structure of a C Program

A typical C program contains:

#include <stdio.h>   // Preprocessor directives

int main()           // Main function
{
    printf("Hello C");  // Statements
    return 0;          // Return statement
}

Basic Sections:

1. Documentation Section – Comments
2. Link Section – #include <stdio.h>
3. Definition Section – Macros
4. Global Declaration Section – global variables
5. Main() Function Section – entry point
6. Subprogram Section – user-defined functions

Compiling, Linking & Running a C Program

C program execution happens in three steps:

A. Compile

• Convert source code (.c) into object file (.o or .obj).
• Command: gcc program.c -c

B. Link

• Link object file with libraries to create executable file.
• Command: gcc program.o -o program.exe

C. Run

• Execute the program.
• Command: ./program.exe

(In IDEs like CodeBlocks/Dev-C++, this happens automatically when we press Run.)

Character Set in C

C uses:

1. Letters

A–Z, a–z

2. Digits

0–9

3. Special Characters

+ - * / % = ; , [ ] { } ( ) # & * ^ ! < > etc.

4. White Spaces

Spaces, tabs, newline

Tokens

A token is the smallest individual unit in a C program.

Types of tokens:

1. Keywords
2. Identifiers
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Operators
6. Punctuators (Symbols)

Keywords

These are reserved words with predefined meaning — cannot be used as identifiers.

Example keywords (32 total):
int, float, if, else, for, while, void, return, char, break, continue, struct, union, sizeof, switch, case, default, long, short

Identifiers

Names given to:

• Variables
• Functions
• Arrays
• Structures

Rules

• Must start with letter or underscore
• No special characters except '_'
• Case sensitive
• Cannot be a keyword

Examples: total, _count, sum1, marks

Constants

Fixed values that do not change during execution.

Types of Constants

1. Numeric constants

• Integer: 10, -5, 300
• Floating: 5.67, -3.14

2. Character constants

• 'A', '%', '3'

3. String constants

• "Hello", "C Program"

4. Boolean constants

• true, false (in C treated as 1 and 0)

Variables

A variable is a named memory location that stores data.

Syntax: datatype variable_name;

Example:

int age;
float salary;
char grade;

Instructions in C

1. Type Declaration Instructions

int a, b;
float x;

2. Arithmetic Instructions

c = a + b;

3. Control Instructions

• if, if-else
• switch
• loops: for, while, do-while
• break, continue

4. Input-Output Instructions

scanf() and printf()

Data Types

C data types are divided into:

A. Basic Data Types

Data Type	Size	Example
int	2 or 4 bytes	10
float	4 bytes	3.14
double	8 bytes	12.567
char	1 byte	'A'

B. Derived Data Types

• Array
• Pointer
• Structure
• Union
• Function

C. Enumeration Type

enum month {Jan, Feb, Mar};

Standard Input/Output

A. printf()

• Used to display output.
• Syntax: printf("Message");
• Example: printf("Sum = %d", sum);

B. scanf()

• Used to take input from the keyboard.
• Syntax: scanf("%d", &num);

Operators and Expressions

A. Types of Operators

1. Arithmetic Operators: + - * / %
2. Relational Operators: == != > < >= <=
3. Logical Operators: && || !
4. Assignment Operators: =, +=, -=
5. Increment/Decrement: ++ --
6. Bitwise Operators: & | ^ << >>
7. Conditional (Ternary): ? :
8. Special Operators: sizeof, comma, pointer operators (*, &)

Expressions

Combination of:

• Variables
• Operators
• Constants

Example: result = (a + b) * c;

Summary Table

Topic	Key Points
History	Developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972
Features	Fast, portable, structured, rich library
Structure	Documentation → Link → main() → functions
Compiling	Compile → Link → Run
Tokens	Keywords, identifiers, constants, operators
Data Types	int, float, char, double, arrays, pointers
I/O	printf(), scanf()
Operators	Arithmetic, logical, bitwise